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Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notas/Notas  tachniquas  at  bibliographiquas 


Tha  inatituta  haa  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  baat 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturaa  of  thia 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagaa  in  tha 
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Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
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have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajout6es 
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mais.  lorsqua  cela  Atait  possibJs,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  ^ti  filmies. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentairas  supplAmentaires; 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  la  mailleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  At*  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographiqua,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  mAthoda  normale  da  filmage 
sont  indiquAs  ci-dessous. 


Tl 
to 


r~|   Coloured  pages/ 


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This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ca  document  est  filmA  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu*  ci-dessous. 


Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagAes 

Pages  restored  and/oi 

Pages  restaurAas  et/ou  peliiculAes 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxei 
Pages  dAcolorAes,  tachat^es  ou  piquAas 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  d6tach6es 

Showthrough> 
Transparence 

Quality  of  prir 

Qualiti  inigaia  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  materii 
Comprand  du  materiel  suppl^mentaira 


I — I  Pages  damaged/ 

I — I  Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 

I — I  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 

r~~|  Pages  detached/ 

[~~|  Showthrough/ 

I      I  Quality  of  print  varies/ 

I      I  Includes  supplementary  material/ 


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Seuie  Edition  disponible 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalament  ou  partiallement 
obscurcies  par  un  fauillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6tA  filmAes  A  nouveau  de  fa^on  A 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


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18X 

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12X                              16X                              20X                              24X                              28X                              32X 

tails 

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sdifiar 

una 
Tiaga 


Tha  copy  ffilmad  hara  has  baan  raproducad  thanks 
to  tha  ganarosity  of: 

University  of  Britiih  Columbia  Library 


Tha  imagas  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  bast  quality 
possibia  considaring  tha  condition  and  lagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spacifications. 


Original  copias  in  printad  papar  covars  ^ra  filmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  ptiga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  impras- 
sion,  or  tha  back  covar  whan  appropriata.  All 
othar  original  copias  ara  filmad  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  impras- 
sion,  and  anding  on  tha  last  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illustratad  imprassion. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  —^  (maaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  V  (maaning  "END"), 
whichavar  applias. 

Maps,  platas.  charts,  ate.  may  ba  filmed  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


L'exempiaira  filmA  fut  reproduit  grAce  A  la 
gtntrositA  da: 

Unnerutt  of  Bntish  Columbia  Library 


Las  imagas  suivantas  ont  tut  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattet*  da  I'axamplaire  film*,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmage. 

Las  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimAe  sont  filmAs  en  commen9ant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derniAre  page  qui  comporte  una  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  dIHvstration.  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  le  cas.  Tous  las  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmte  en  commenpant  par  la 
premiAre  page  qui  comporte  una  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'iNustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  darniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaltra  sur  la 
derniire  image  de  chaque  microfiche,  »elon  le 
cas:  ie  symbole  — ^  sigrMfie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvenl  Atre 
fiimAs  A  des  taux  de  rMuction  diff6rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  troo  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  dicttA.  il  est  filmA  A  partir 
de  Tangle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  an  pranant  le  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaira.  Las  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mAthoda. 


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3 


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2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

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6 

»,. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC 


BY 


PAUL  T.  LAFLEUR,  M.A. 

Lecturer  in  Logic  and  English,  McGill  University 


»,. 


- — bCyioi^Lz-coi 


ACC.  NO. 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 
GINN  &  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

1899 


mut 


Copyright,  i8gg 
By    PAUL  T.   LAFLEUR 


ALL  RIGHTS   KESBRVBD 


I 


PREFATORY    NOTE. 


In  the  following  collection,  illustrating  fundamental 
processes  of  Deductive  Logic,  with  examples  taken  from 
general  literature,  the  compiler  has  had  in  view,  prima- 
rily, the  needs  of  teachers  of  the  subject.  Many  of  the 
manuals  in  common  use  present  those  processes  (partic- 
ularly the  syllogism)  in  the  form  of  what  Dr.  Venn 
aptly  terms  "prepared  material";  and  the  instructor 
consequently  finds  difficulty  in  convincing  his  hearers 
that  the  logic  of  the  class-room  bears  any  relation  to 
thought  as  met  with  in  ordinary  discussion  and  in  books. 
Thus,  without  attempting  a  comprehensive  treatment  of 
"rhetorical  logic"  such  as  Jevons  had  in  view,  but 
unfortunately  did  not  live  to  carry  out,  it  yet  seems 
possible  to  offer  a  little  volume  tha^  may  serve  some 
purpose  as  an  adjunct  to  any  well-known  handbook  — 
not  in  any  sense  as  a  substitute.  Should  a  timorous 
objection  be  urged  that  several  of  the  specimens  selected 
involve  questions  quae  iit  sermone  et  opinione  positae 
sunt,  as  Bacon  puts  it,  the  reply  is  that  the  student  also 
has  been  kept  in  mind.  In  the  present  writer's  experi- 
ence the  timely  introduction  of  a  syllogism  of  contro- 
versial, or  even  of  polemical  interest  has  often  proved 
the  only  means  of  relieving  the  undeniable  tedium  of 


lU 


IV 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


rigorously  conventional  Formal  Logic ;  it  rests  with  the 
lecturer  himself  not  to  use  his  subject  as  a  vehicle  for 
slyly  conveying  or  enforcing  his  private  convictions. 

Some  explanation  is  needed  of  the  fact  that  this  collec- 
tion begins  at  once  with  the  syllogism.  It  is  true  that, 
in  discussing  Terms  and  Propositions,  some  of  the  proc- 
esses admit  of  tolerably  easy  literary  illustration.  For 
example,  to  take  but  one  instance,  the  common  fallacy 
of  applying  simple  conversion  to  the  universal  affirma- 
tive proposition  generally  assumes  a  livelier  aspect  for 
the  learner  when  it  is  shown  to  have  been  recognized 
by  Prior  in  the  following  epigram :  — 

Yes,  every  poet  is  a  fool : 

By  demonstration  Ned  can  show  it : 

Happy,  could  Ned's  inverted  rule 
Prove  every  fool  to  be  a  poet. 

But  as  in  most  text-books  ample  attention  is  given 
to  these  somewhat  formal  methods,  of  which  the  prac- 
tical disciplinary  value  lies  in  their  very  formality,  it  has 
seemed  better  to  present  in  this  volume  only  examples 
of  "mediate  inference,"  of  miscellaneous  fallacies  of 
common  occurrence,  together  with  a  few  arguments 
occupying  the  terrain  vague  where  logic  and  rhetoric  so 
often  elude  precise  delimitation.  Nor  has  it  been  thought 
advisable  to  arrange  these  in  such  classified  series  as 
immediately  to  suggest  either  their  soundness  or  their 
unsoundness.  The  desire  to  assist  one's  fellow-workers 
in  enlivening  a  lecture  —  or  an  examination  paper  —  is 
perhaps  not  altogether  misplaced.  Moreover,  if  the 
student  can  thus  be  made  to  feel  that  the  intellectual 


PREFATORY  NOTE.  V 

training  of  logic  comes,  in  part  at  least,  from  its  mode 
of  dealing  with  ideas  expressed  in  language,  and  not 
exclusively  from  the  manipulation  of  symbols,  he  is  less 
likely  to  invent  for  himself  any  equivalent  of  the  saying 
that  "  Logic  is  neither  a  Science  nor  an  Art —  but  a 
dodge." 

M^GiLL  College,  Montreal, 

June,  1899.  • 


MocKMODE.     Form  the  Proposition  by  Mode  and  Figure,  Sir. 

Roebuck Blow  your  nose,  Child ;  and  have  a  care  of  dirting 

your  Philosophical  Slabbering-bib.  .  .  .  Your  starch'd 
Band,  set  by  Mode  and  Figure,  Sir.  ...  Now  you  have 
left  the  University,  learn,  learn. 

Farquhar.      Love  and  a  Bottle,  Act  III. 


t-j^aftt-geT-. 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    LOGIC. 


-•«•- 


1.  All  human  things  are  subject  to  decay, 

And,  when  fate  summons,  monarchs  must  obey. 

Dry  DEN  :  Mac  Flecknoe. 

2.  I  never  held  it  n\y  forte  to  be  a  severe  reasoner, 
but  I  can  see  that  if  whatever  is  best  is  A,  and  B  hap- 
pens to  be  best,  B  must  be  A,  however  little  you  might 
have  expected  it  beforehand. 

George  Eliot  :  Daniel  Dcronda,  ch.  52. 

3.  I  deem  it  impossible  for  any  of  the  great  mon- 
archies of  Europe  to  last  much  longer ;  all  of  them  have 
flourished,  and  every  state  that  is  flourishing  is  already 

in   a   condition   of   decline.  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau. 

4.  I  would  have  no  dealings  with  my  brother,  and  I 
put  my  conduct  upon  a  syllogism.  I  said,  "St.  Paul 
bids  me  avoid  those  who  cause  divisions ;  you  cause 
divisions  ;  therefore  I  must  avoid  you." 

•  Newman  :  Apologia,  p.  47. 

5.  England  and  Ireland  should  have  one  executive 
power.     But  the  legislature  has  a  most  important  share 


2  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 

of  the  executive  power.     Therefore,  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  should  have  one  legislature. 

Macaulay  :  On  the  Repeal  of  the  Union. 

6.  It  appears  as  if  all  our  concrete  manifestations  of 
selfishness  might  be  the  conclusions  of  as  many  syllo- 
gisms, each  with  this  principle  as  the  subject  of  its 
major  premise,  thus  :  Whatever  is  me  is  precious ;  this 
is  me ;  therefore  this  is  precious.  Whatever  is  mine 
must  not  fail ;  this  is  mme ;  therefore,  this  must  not 

fail.  James  :  Psychology^  Vol.  I,  p.  318. 

7.  A  Liberal  believes  in  liberty,  and  Liberty  signifies 
the  non-intervention  of  the  State.  renan. 

8.  ...  Nature  craves 

All  dues  be  rendered  to  their  owners  ;  now 
What  nearer  debt  in  all  humanity 
Than  wife  is  to  the  husband } 

I       '  .  i^"'  -t '  t"       Troilus  and  Cressida.  II,  2. 

9.  Principles  recognized  by  all  persons  of  common 
sense  are  innate ;  we  and  our  party  are  persons  of  com- 
mon sense ;  and  consequently  the  principles  we  profess 
must  be  inrate. 

10.  That  which  causes  a  balance  of  good  is  right, 
according  to  utilitarians ;  and  therefore  persecution  may 
sometimes  be  right.  Leslie  stephun. 

11.  No  man  should  fear  death,  for  it  is  according  to 
nature ;  and  nothing  is  evil  which  is  according  to  nature. 

Marcus  Aurelius. 


f 


!■ 


'n. 


1 


'(.-f 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC.  3 

12.  Power  pleases  the  violent  and  proud ;  wealth 
delights  the  placid  and  timorous.  Youth,  therefore, 
flies  at  power ;  and  age  grovels  after  riches. 

13.  Discontent  is  an  essential  condition  of  progress. 
But  discontent  means  sorrow.  Continued  progress  re- 
quires chronic  discontent,  and  therefore  chronic  sorrow. 

J.  W.  Barlow  :  The  Ultimatum  of  Pessimism,  p.  37. 

14.  Raising  the  wages  of  day-labourers  is  wrong  ;  for 
it  does  not  make  them  live  better,  but  only  makes  them 
idler,  and  idleness  is  a  very  bad  thing  for  human  nature. 

Johnson  :  in  Boswell. 

15.  All  concluded  that  happiness  was  the  chief  Good, 
and  ought  to  be  the  Ultimate  End  of  Man  ;  that  as  this 
was  the  End  of  Wisdom,  so  Wisdom  was  the  Way  to 

Happmess.  Sir  William  Temple:  Of  Gardening. 

16.  I  am  walking  with  a  friend  in  the  garden,  and 
we  see  a  moth  alight  upon  a  flower.  He  exclaims : 
'•What  a  beautiful  butterfly!"  Whereupon  I  remark: 
"  That  is  not  a  butterfly  ;  it  is  a  moth."  If  he  asks  me 
how  I  know  that,  the  answer  is :  "  Because  butterflies, 
when  they  alight,  close  their  wings  vertically ;  moths 
expand  them  horizontally."  g.  h.  Lewes. 

17.  All  parents  are  not  wise.  They  cannot  all  endure 
to  hear  of  any  .  .  .  opinions  but  their  own. 

John  Morley  :  On  Compromise,  p.  134. 

18.  I  take  it  to  be  certain  that  whatever  car,  by  just 
reasoning,  be  inferred  from  a  principi>   that  is  necessary. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


must  be  a  necessary  truth.  Thus,  as  the  axioms  in 
mathematics  are  all  necessary  truths,  so  are  all  the  con- 
clusions drawn  from  them  ;  that  is,  the  whole  body  of 

that  science.  Reid  :  Essays. 

19.  Here  are  two  syllogisms,  having  equivalent  prac- 
tical conclusions,  yet  not  only  different,  but  even  con- 
tradistinguished :  — 

I.  It  is  my  duty  to  love  all  mon  :  but  I  am  myself  a 
man :  ergo^  it  is  my  duty  to  love  myself  equally  with 
others. 

II.  It  is  my  nature  to  love  myself :  but  I  cannot 
realise  this  impulse  of  nature,  without  acting  to  others 
as  if  I  loved  them  equally  with  myself :  crgo^  it  is  my 
duty  to  love  myself  by  acting  towards  others  as  if  I 
loved  them  equally  with  myself. 

Coleridge:  The  Friend^  December,  1820. 

20.  No  ;  the  Dean  (Swift)  was  no  Irishman  ;  no  Irish- 
man ever  gave  but  with  a  kind  word  and  a  kind  heart. 

Thackeray  :  Lectures  on  the  English  Humourists. 

21.  Every  religion,  every  society  that  has  not  as  its 
principle  the  immortality  of  the  soul  can  be  upheld  only 
by  extraordinary  providence ;  the  Jewish  religion  did 
not  hold  the  immortality  of  the  soul  as  a  principle ; 
hence  it  was  maintained  by  an  extraordinary  providence. 

Warburton  :  Quoted  by  Voltaire  {Did.  Phil.,  Art.  "  Ame  "). 

22.  But  every  man  cannot  distinguish  between  ped- 
y     antry  and   poetry ;    every  man  therefore  is  not  fit   to 

innovate.         .  Dryden. 


g^wiMi    i^v^i<ismt"-'V'* 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


5 


23.  We  have  a  very  clear  idea,  and  a  very  distinct 
notion  of  the  liberty  we  are  speaking  about ;  whence  it 
follows  that  this  notion  is  very  true,  and  that  conse- 
quently the  thing  it  represents  is  very  certain. 

BossuET  :  Traite  du  libre  arbitre. 

24.  The  more  a  bad  man  has  to  do  with  a  bad  man, 
and  the  more  nearly  he  is  brought  into  contact  with 
him,  the  more  he  will  be  likely  .0  hate  him,  for  he 
injures  him,  and  injurer  and  injured  cannot  be  friends. 

Plato:  Lysis,  2\^.   - 


25.  No  nation  admits  of  an  abstract  definition  ;  all 
nations  are  beings  of  many  qualities  and  many  sides. 

Bagehot  :  Physics  atid  Politics,  p.  6i. 

26.  Every  idea  that  we  have  is  conditioned  b)^  being 
an  idea  of  what  exists,  either  as  a  whole  or  in  parts ; 
and  therefore  our  idea  of  the  existence  of  God  proves 

that  exiStenCv*?.  Joseph  de  Maistre. 


\ 


-K- 


27.  Our  ideas  reach  no  farther  than  our  experience : 
we  have  no  experience  of  divine  attributes  and  opera- 
tions :  I  need  not  conclude  my  syllogism  ;  you  can  draw 
the  inference  yourself. 

Yivuis.:  Dialogues  on  Natural  Religion,  VditiW. 


28.    The  impossibility  I  am  in  of  proving  the  non- 
existence of  God  discloses  that  existence  to  me. 

La  Bruy^re  :  Des  Esfrits  Forts. 


6  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 

29.  Some  modern  theologians  assert  that  an  extrava- 
gant or  contradictory  doctrine  must  be  divine ;  since  no 
man  alive  could  have  thought  of  inventing  it. 

Gibbon  :  Decline  and  Fall,  Vol.  IV,  p.  70,  note. 

30.  Hence  we  sue  for  pardon ;  and  so  we  acknowl- 
edge ourselves  to  be  offenders  ;  for  the  unguilty  needeth 

no  pardon.  Latimer  :  The  Sixth  Sermon  on  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

31.  No  secret  trial  is  expedient ;  for  it  invariably 
casts  a  suspicion  on  the  integrity  of  the  judges. 


32.  The  soundest  of  ethical  philosophers  always 
account  virtue  to  be  an  end  in  itself ;  and  as  the  vota- 
ries and  advocates  of  a  purely  hedonistic  type  deny  that 
virtue  is  its  own  reward,  they  cannot  be  ranked  among 
the  soundest  of  ethical  philosophers. 

33.  Correction  in  itself  is  not  cruel.  Children,  being 
not  reasonable,  can  be  governed  only  by  fear. 

Johnson. 

34.  All  men  are  born  under  government,  and  there- 
fore they  cannot  be  at  liberty  to  begin  a  new  one. 
Every  one  is  bom  a  subject  to  his  father  or  his  prince, 
and  is  therefore  under  the  perpetual  tie  of  subjection 
and  allegiance. 

Locke'' s  Interpretation  of  Filmer's  Theory  of  Patriarchal  Government. 

35.  Of  every  empire  all  the  subordinate  communi- 
ties are  liable  to  taxation ;  because  they  all  share  the 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC.  J 

benefits  of  government,  and  therefore  ought  to  furnish 
their  proportion  of  the  expense. 

Samuel  Johnson  :  Taxation  no  Tyranny. 

36.  No  two  languages  furnish  equipollent  words,  — 
their  phrases  differ,  their  syntax  and  their  idioms 
still  more  widely.  But  a  translation,  strictly  so  called, 
requires  an  exact  conformity  in  all  these  particulars,  and 
also  in  numbers  ;  therefore  it  is  impossible. 

Thurlow  to  Cowper. 

37.  "Very  few,"  said  the  poet,  "live  by  choice. 
Every  man  is  placed  in  the  present  condition  by  causes 
which  acted  without  his  foresight,  and  with  which  he 
did  not  always  willingly  co-operate ;  and  therefore  you 
will  rarely  meet  one  who  does  not  think  the  lot  of  his 
neighbour  better  than  his  own."   johnson:  Rasseias,ch.  16. 

38.  There  is  no  style  in  which  some  man  may  not, 
under  some  circumstances,  express  himself.  There  is 
therefore  no  style  which  the  drama  rejects,  none  which 
it  does  not  occasionally  require,      macaulay:  Machiavdu. 


\V 


'in! 


39.    Our  ^voluntary  service  he  requires, 

Not  our  necessitated.     Such  with  him 
Finds  no  acceptance,  nor  can  find  ;  for  how 
Can  hearts  not  free  be  tried  whether  they  serve 
Willing  or  no,  who  will  but  what  they  must 
By  dertiny,  and  can  no  other  choose.? 

Milton:  Paradise  Lost,  V ,  ^2g-^^. 


8 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


40.  There  is  no  merit  in  the  rehef  of  distress  by  a 
charitable  man,  for  the  one  who  gives  to  the  needy  is 
merely  gratifying  his  own  feelings  of  pity,  and  no  one 
holds  that  such  gratification  is  deserving  of  special 
commendation. 

41.  Recent  legislation  has  in  one  respect  proved  both 
onerous  and  unjustifiable ;  for  by  placing  restrictive 
duties  on  the  importation  of  books,  pictures,  and  music 
it  has  laid  a  heavy  burden  on  many  who  are  ill  able  to 
bear  it,  and  it  taxes  some  of  the  aids  to  higher  culture. 
Now,  higher  culture  is  not  a  mere  luxury ;  the  country 
cannot  do  without  it. 

42.  It  being  granted,  by  definition,  that  all  connota- 
tive  terms  convey  to  the  mind  the  notion  of  a  definite 
attribute,  or  of  definite  attributes,  in  the  concepts  they 
serve  to  denote ;  it  must  follow  that  no  proper  (singu- 
lar) term,  not  given  for  connotative  purposes,  can  zn  se 
be  connotative,  for  beyond  the  fact  of  its  denoting,  no 
proper  name  has  any  meaning. 

Extracted  from  an  article  on  "  TermsP 

43.  A  tax  is  a  payment  exacted  by  authority  from 
part  of  the  community  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole. 
All  taxes  then  are  acts  of  government ;  and  since  every 
act  of  government  aims  at  public  good,  there  should  be 
a  necessary  connection  between  taxation  and  the  public 
weal. 

44.  There  is  a  Spanish  proverb  which  declares  that 
Heaven  always  looks  favorably  on  kindly  desires  and 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


9 


o 


good  intentions  ;  now,  since  Heaven,  as  you  say,  has  paid 
no  heed  to  your  desires,  these  cannot  have  been  good. 

45.  The  best  of  us  being  unfit  to  die,  what  an  inex- 
pressible absurdity  to  put  the  worst  to  death. 

Hawthorne. 

46.  Swift  is  praised  as  the  friend  to  Hberty.     He  was 
not  that :  he  was  the  enemy  of  injustice.     He  resisted    . 
certain  flagrant  acts  of  oppression,  and  tried  to  redress 
his  country's  wrongs,  but  he  never  thought  of  the  liber- 
ties of  his  country.  H.  Crabb  Robinson  :  Diary. 

47.  A  prince  without  letters  is  a  pilot  without  eyes. 
All  his  government  is  groping.  In  sovereignty  it  is  a 
most  happy  thing  not  to  be  compelled ;  but  so  it  is  the 
niost  miserable  not  to  be  counselled.  And  how  can  he 
be  counselled  that  cannot  see  to  read  the  best  counsel- 
lors (which  are  books) ;  for  they  neither  flatter  us  nor 

hide  from  us  .^  -     '        Ben  Jonson:  Discoveries. 

48.  We  are  not  persecutors  of  belief.  We  respect 
the  inner  life  of  conscience,  and  wish  it  to  be  free. 

A.  AuLARD  :  Revue  Bleue,  April  22,  1899. 

49.  He  is  free  who  lives  as  he  wishes  to  live.  ... 
Not  one  of  the  bad  lives  as  he  wishes.     Nor  is  he  then 

free.  .  'Evic-y^t\3s:  Discourses,  W,\.    . 

50.  Without  grace  no  one  can  pray,  and  yet  grace  is 
to  be  imparted  to  those  only  who  duly  ask  for  it.  That 
is,  grace  is  granted  only  to  those  who  have  it  already. 

H.  Crabb  Robinson  :  On  a  sermon  of  Arnold -s. 

Diary.  Vol.  II,  p.  220. 


4- 


mmm 


10 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


51.  I  say  then  that  sovereignty,  being  but  the  exer- 
cise of  the  general  will,  can  never  be  alienated,  and 
that  the  sovereign,  who  is  a  collective  being,  can  be 
represented  by  nobody  but  himself :  power  can  indeed 
be  transmitted,  but  not  will. 

Rousseau  :  Social  Contract^  II,  i. 

52.  Pascal.  God  is  good,  and  good  is  God :  defini- 
tion, O  my  friend,  can  go  no  farther  than  this.  All 
things  therefore  which  are  not  God,  are  of  themselves 

^Vll.  H.  D.  Traill:  The  New  Lucian,  ^.  ii<). 


53.    **  No  man  that  lives  is  altogether  happy. 


>> 


hi 

I 
I 


or 

"There  is  no  man  that  is  or  can  be  free," 

is  a  maxim  ;  but  it  becomes  an  enthymeme  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  next  line  : 

"  For  money  is  his  master  or  else  Fortune." 

Aristotle  :  Rhetoric,  Bk.  II,  ch.  21  (transl.  by  Weldon). 

54.  Society  is  a  necessary  institution.  Hence  the 
Christian  religion  is  of  divine  origin,  for  it  is  the  only 
means  of  bringing  society  to  a  state  of  perfection. 

Lacordaire. 

55.  Cromwell,  Mr.  Froude  tells  us,  held  Romanism 
to  be  *  morally  poisonous '  ;  therefore  Cromwell  did  not 
tolerate.  We  have  decided  that  it  is  no  longer  poison- 
ous ;  therefore  wc  do  tolerate. 

Leslie  Stephen  :  Poisonous  Opinions. 

56.  Veuillot,  in  a  striking  sentence,  expressed  with 
great  candor  the  policy  of  his  party.     '  When  you  are 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


11 


the  masters,'  he  said  to  the  Liberals  and  Protestants, 
'we  claim  perfect  liberty  for  ourselves,  as  your  princi- 
ples require  it ;  when  we  are  the  masters  we  refuse  it 
to  you,  as  it  is  contrary  to  our  principles.'  #• 

W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Democracy  and  Liberty^  Vol.  II,  p.  20. 

57.  The  evils  of  life  all  pass  away  in  time ;  no  tran- 
sitory things  demand  a  moment's  serious  thought ;  and 
therefore,  nothing  upon  which  we  should  rightly  dwell  is 
to  be  placed  among  the  evils  of  life. 

58.  It  is  indisputable  that  some  persons  deserving  of 
attention  are  fools  ;  for  some  fools  are  capable  of  telling 
the  truth,  and  any  one  capable  of  telling  the  truth  is 
deserving  of  attention.  . 

59.  Who  has  many  wishes  has  but  little  will ;  who 
has  but  little  will  is  infirm  of  purpose.  Infirmity  of 
purpose  is  therefore  commonly  attendant  upon  excessive 
distribution  of  desires. 


•< 


60.  A  bad  man  without  conscience  you  cannot  call  a 
fool  for  not  acting  as  if  he  had  one.  He  neglects  no 
elements  of  happiness  about  which  he  cares  ;  and  a 
career  which  would  make  better  men  miserable  brings 
him  no  distress. 

James  Martineau:  Types  of  Ethical  Theory,Yo\.\l,^.^6. 

61.  Persons  given  to  constant  interruption  deserve 
not  to  be  trusted,  for  Lavater  declares  that  "  Who 
interrupts  often  is  inconstant  and  insincere." 


12 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


62.  A  French  philosopher  wrote,  "All  becomes 
legitimate  and  even  virtuous  on  behalf  of  the  public 
safety."  Construct  two  arguments  on  this  basis,  show- 
ing the  extreme  limits  to  which  the  principle  assumed 
may  be  applied. 

63.  According  to  the  law  of  the  land,  no  one  is  eli- 
gible to  the  presidency  who  was  not  born  on  American 
soil ;  consequently,  as  none  of  the  newly  arrived  emi- 
grants was  born  on  American  soil,  it  is  useless  for  any 
one  of  the  in  to  aspire  to  that  high  office. 

64.  It  is  precisely  because  we  believe  that  opinion,  and 
nothing  but  opinion,  can  effect  great  permanent  changes, 
that  we  ought  to  be  careful-  to  keep  this  most  potent 
force  honest,  wholesome,  fearless,  and  independent. 

John  Morley  :  On  Compromise,  p,  78. 

65.  All  finitude,  all  determination,  according  to  the 
well-known  Spinozistic  aphorism,  is  negation,  and  nega- 
tion cannot  constitute  reality.  To  know  the  reality  of 
things,  therefore,  we  have  to  abstract  from  their  limits : 
therefore  the  only  reality  is  the  infinite. 

^  Edward  Caird  :  Cartesianism  ;  Essays,  Vol.  II,  p.  291, 

66.  Good  and  Evil,  in  will  and  character,  cannot  be 
reduced  to  the  True  and  False ;  because  the  latter  are 
unsusceptible  of  degrees,  which  attach  to  the  very 
essence  of  the  former. 

James  Martineau  :  Types  of  Ethical  Theory,  Vol.  II,  p.  470. 

67.  Theological  truth,  sometimes  at  least,  professes 
to  rest  to  some  extent  on  experience,  and  to  be  a  fair 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


13 


inference  from  observable  facts.  Consequently,  if,  as 
must  clearly  be  the  only  correct  way,  we  interpret 
experience  as  including  facts  and  all  legitimate  infer- 
ences from  these,  it  may  be  urged  that  we  are  bound 
to  include  theological  ideas  in  our  investigation. 

James  Sully:  Pessimism,  p.  i^c). 

68.  Capital  punishment  is  a  violation  of  natural  jus-    y 
tice.     No  society  has  a  right  to  deprive  the  individual 
of  that  which  he  has  not  obtained  from  society. 

Argument  of  a  Portuguese  in  defence  of  the  abolition  of 
capital  punishment  in  his  country. 

69.  Unmarried  men  are  .  .  .  not  always  best  sub- 
jects, for  they  are  light  to  run  away,  and  almost  all 
fugitives  are  of  that  condition. 

Bacon  :  Of  Marriage  and  Single  Life. 

70.  We  do  not  hold  you  responsible  for  your  opin- 
ions, but  for  the  expression  of  them.  Belief  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  will ;  not  so,  expression  of  belief :  the 
latter  is  a  voluntary  act. 

71.  Those  are  the  best  Governments,  where  the  best 
men  govern  ;  and  the  difference  is  not  so  great  in  the 
Forms  of  Magistracy  as  in  the  Persons  of  Magistrates  ; 
which  may  be  the  sense  of  what  was  said  of  old  (taking 
wise  and  good  men  to  be  meant  bv  Philosophers),  that 
the  best  Governments  were  those,  where  Kings  vere 
I'hilosophers,  or  Philosophers  Kings. 

Sir  William  Temple  :  Essay  ott  Government. 

72.  It  must  be  understood  above  all  things  that  the 
principle  of  hatred  is  contrariety  and  repugnance ;  and 


^ 


■^ 


mm 


14 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


\ 


in  this  respect,  it  v^  not  comprehensible  that  one  should 
hate  truth  in  itself  and  in  a  general  sense,  "for,"  as  the 
great  St.  Thomas  very  well  declares,  "  what  is  in  this 
manner  vague  and  universal  is  never  repugnant  to  any 
one,  and  consequently  cannot  be  an  object  of  hatred." 

BossuET  :  Scond  Sermon  for  Passion  Sunday. 

73.  Fortitude  is  very  well  defined  by  the  Stoic  philos- 
ophers when  they  call  it  a  virtue  contending  for  jus- 
tice and  honesty.  No  man  therefore,  by  baseness  and 
treachery,  has  ever  got  the  name  and  reputation  for 
true  courage  ;  for  nothing  can  ever  be  virtuous  or  cred- 
itable that  is  not  just. 

Cicero  :  De  Ojfficiis,  I,  19  (Cockman's  transl.). 

74.  That  which  was  profitable,  therefore,  prevailed, 
because  it  was  honest  withal ;  which  had  it  not  been,  it 
could  never  have  been  profitable. 

Cicero  :  Dc  Officiis,  III,  10  (Cockman's  transl.). 

75.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  con- 
sumption of  meat  has  more  than  doubled ;  that  of  wine 
has  doubled ;  coffee  has  increased  threefold,  and  sugar 
tenfold;  while  beer  has  risen  seventy  per  cent,  in  con- 
sumption. Now  as  a  rich  man  consumes  no  more  meat, 
coffee,  sugar,  etc.,  in  1 894  than  in  1 800,  it  is  the  work- 
ing classes  who  have  increased  their  sum  of  pleasures. 

Alfred  Rambaud  :  Hist,  de  la  Civil.  Content/),  en  France. 

76.  He  who  confines  himself  to  the  imitation  of  an 
individual,  as  he  never  proposes  to  surpass,  so  he  is  not 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


15 


likely  to  equal,  the  object  of  his  imitation.  He  pro- 
fesses only  to  follow ;  and  he  that  follows  must  neces- 
sarily be  behmd.      sir  Joshua  Reynolds:  The  Sixth  Discourse. 


77.  There  can  be  no  absolute  perfection  in  any 
creature ;  because  every  creature  is  derived  from  some- 
thing of  a  superior  existence,  and  dependent  on  that 
source  for  its  own  existence.  No  created  being  can  be 
all-wise,  all-good,  and  all-powerful,  because  his  powers 
and  capacities  are  finite  and  limited ;  consequently 
whatever  is  created  must,  in  its  own  nature,  be  subject 
to  error,  irregularity,  excess  and  imperfectness. 

Benjamin  Franklin  :  Dialogue  between  Philocles  and 
Horatio^  Wori's,  Vol.  II,  p.  50. 

78.  Honorable  is  whatsoever  possession,  action,  or 
quality,  is  an  argument  and  sign  of  power.  .  .  .  Timely 
resolution,  or  determination  of  what  a  man  is  to  do,  is 
honorable ;  as  being  the  contempt  of  small  difficulties 
and  dangers.  And  irresolution,  dishonorable  ;  as  a  sign 
of  too  much  valuing  of  little  impediments,  and  little 
advantages :  for  when  a  man  has  weighed  things  as 
long  as  the  time  permits,  and  resolves  not,  the  differ- 
ence of  weight  is  but  little ;  and  therefore  if  he  resolve 
not,  he  overvalues  little  things,  which  is  pusillanimity. 

.        "  HoBBES  :  Leviathan,  Part  II,  10. 

79.  My  opinion,  says  each  man,  is  true :  moreover 
the  truth  will  prevail ;  and  hence  it  follows  that  my 
opinion,  whatever  it  may  be,  represents  the  future  faith 
of  the  world.  • 


i6 


ILLUST.iATIONS  OF  LOCC. 


80.  Now  we  can  imitate  only  what  interests  us 
strongly  ;  he,  therefore,  who  can  imitate  many  things, 
is  he  who  is  interested  in  many  things. 

J.  R.  Seeley  :  Lectures  and  Essays,  p.  177. 

81.  Perfection  is  synonymous  with  goodness  in  the 
highest  degree ;  and  hence  to  define  good  conduct  in 

j  terms  of  perfection,  is  indirectly  to  define  good  conduct 
in  terms  of  itself.  Naturally,  therefore,  it  happens  that 
the  notion  of  perfection,  like  the  notion  of  goodness, 
can  be  framed  only  in  relation  to  ends. 

Herbert  Spencer:   The  Data  of  Ethics,  c\i.  ^. 

82.  Whatever  is  included  in  this  finite  world  is  finite, 
limited  both  in  virtue  and  substance,  bounded  with  a 
superficies,  inclosed  and  circumscribed  in  a  place,  which 
are  the  true  and  natural  conditions  of  a  body  ;  for  there 
is  nothing  but  a  body  which  hath  a  superficial  part,  and 
is  barred  and  fastened  in  a  place,    charron:  On  Wisdom. 

83.  Slavery  in  the  Jev/ish  times  was  not  the  slavery 
of   negroes  ;    and  therefore  if  you  confine  slavery  to 

\l    negroes,  you  lose  your  sheet  anchor,  which  is  the  Bible 
argument  in  favour  of  slavery. 

Quoted  in  John  Brighfs  IVth  Speech  on  America,  1866. 

84.  The  following  pairs  of  propositions  being  respec- 
tively taken  as  premises,  state  clearly  whether  or  no  any 
syllogistic  conclusion  is  inferrible ;  and  complete  the 
possible  syllogism. 

A.    No  labor  is  hired  outside  of  the  community. 
All  labor  is  rewarded  alike. 


' 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


17 


H.     All  functionaries  arc,  by  reason  of  their  office, 
exempt  from  parental  control. 
No  one  exempt    from  parental  control  is  less 
than  twenty-one  years  of  age. 

C.  All   reasoning,   says   Hobbes  in  LcviatluxUy  is 

computation. 
All  computation  ultimately  resolves  itself  into 
addition  and  subtraction. 

D.  All  these  philosophies   represent  fundamental 

tendencies  in  human  nature. 
All  these  philosophies  have  run  long  and  dis- 
tinguished careers. 

E.  Holiness,  declares  a  philosopher,  is  a  conscious- 

ness of  sin  with  a  consciousness  of  the  vic- 
tory over  sin. 
No  holiness,  says  another,  is  innate  in  man. 

85.  N'^^  savage  is  free.  All  over  the  world  his  daily 
life  is  regulated  by  a  complicated  and  apparently  most 
inconvenient  set  of  customs  as  forcible  as  laws. 

Sir  John  Lubbock:  Origin  of  Civilization^'^. '}^:ii. 

86.  Reason  is  an  entirely  personal  faculty.  When 
therefore  we  assert  anything  in  the  name  of  reason,  we 
do  so  in  the  name  of  our  reason  ;  certainty  has  no  other 
basis,  no  other  criterion  than  our  individual  feeling,  — 
which  is  absurd.  Hence  reason  can  give  us  no  absolute 
certainty,  and  is  thus  convicted  of  impotence.  We 
must  therefore  seek  some  other  authority. 

Cousin;  Philosophic  Contemporaine. 


X 


11' 


i 


i8 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


87.  Since  every  man  is  born  with  equal  natural  rights, 
he  is  entitled  to  an  equal  protection  of  them  with  all 
other  men  ;  rnd  since  government  is  that  protection, 
right  reaso''-  and  experience  alike  demand  that  every 
person  shall  have  a  voice  in  the  government  upon  per- 
fectly equal  and  practicable  terms. 

George  William  Curtis:  The  Right  of  Suffrage,  1^6^. 

88.  The  mystical  or  Quietist  argument  of  the  Neo- 
platonists  was  that  all  perturbation  is  a  pollution  of  the 
soul ;  that  the  act  of  suicide  is  accompanied  by,  and 
springs  from  perturbation,  and  that  therefore  the  perpe- 
trator ends  his  days  by  a  crime. 

W.  E.  H.  Lecky  :  History  of  European  Morals, 
Vol.  II,  r.  44. 

89.  That  which  is  good  musu  be  something  useful, 
and  the  perfectly  good  man  should  pay  heed  to  it.  But 
no  such  man  would  ever  repent  of  having  refused  any 
pleasure.     Pleasure  then  is  neither  good  nor  useful. 

90.  Pleasure  Is  that  which  is  so  in  itself :  good  is 
that  which  approves  itself  as  such  on  reflection,  or  the 
idea  of  whicn  is  a  source  of  satisfaction.  All  pleasure 
is  not,  therefore  (morally  speaking),  equally  good  ;  for 
all  pleasure  does  not  equally  bear  reflecting  on. 

Hazlitt  :  The  Spirit  of  the  Age. 

91.  It  has  been  argued,  on  the  ground  of  the  follow- 
ing propositions  from  Shelley's  Defence  of  Poetry^  that 
poets  are  true  utilitarians  :  "  The  production  and  assur- 
ance of  pleasure  in  the  highest  sense  is  true  utility. 


,, 


jmsssssm 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


19 


Those  who  produce  and  preserve  this  pleasure  are  poets 
or  poetical  philosophers." 

92.  Shelley  himself,  in  the  same  essay,  assents  to 
the  declaration  that  Poetry  is  not  Logic,  because  ♦*  it  is 
not  subject  to  the  control  of  the  active  powers  of  the 
mind." 

93.  Nature  is  infallible ;  for  the  Law  of  an  infallible 
Lawgiver  must  needs  be  infallible ;  and  Nature  is  the 
Law  as  well  as  the  Art  of  God. 

James  Harrington  :  The  Mechanics  of  Nature. 

94.  That  which  is  not  just  is  not  law ;  and  that 
which  is  not  law  ought  not  to  be  obeyed. 

Algernon  Sidney  :  Discourses  on  Government,  III,  11. 

95.  It  is  logically,  whether  practically  so  or  not,  quite 
conceivable  that  if  the  end  be  not  the  production,  but 
the  distribution  of  wealth  in  a  particular  country,  its 
circumstances  may  be  such  as  to  justify  protection  as 
a  means  to  this  end. 

R,  B.  Haldane  :  Life  of  Adam  Smith,  p.  153. 

96.  We  are  told  that  a  beginning  of  life  is  incon- 
ceivable. Living  organisms  cannot  have  been  devel- 
oped, as  it  is  not  shown  that  they  have  been  developed, 
from  inanimate  matter.  Every  living  thing,  ihcn,  is  a 
continuation  of  some  previously  living  thing ;  and  the 
soul  should  therefore   be  continuous  with  a  previous 

soul.  Leslie  Stephen  :  What  is  Materialism? 


k- 


-1- 


'i' 


'i) 


=  11 


20 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


i 


i 


97.  In  proportion  as  opinions  are  open  and  divulged, 
they  are  harmless.  Opinions  become  dangerous  to  a 
state  only  when  persecution  makes  it  necessary  for  men 
to  communicate  their  ideas  under  the  bond  of  secrecy. 
Do  you  believe  it  possible  that  the  calamity  which  now 
rages  in  Ireland  would  have  come  to  its  present  height, 
if  the  people  had  been  allowed  to  meet  and  divulge 

their    grievances  }      Charles  James  Fox:  Repeal  of  the  Treason 

and  Sedition  Bills,  1 797. 

98.  All  hereditary  government  is  in  its  nature  tyranny. 
An  heritable  crown,  or  an  heritable  throne,  or  by  what 
other  fanciful  names  such  things  may  be  called,  have 
no  other  significant  explanation  than  that  mankind 
are  heritable  property.  To  inherit  a  government  is  to 
inherit  the  people,  as  if  they  were  flocks  and  herds. 

Paine:  Rights  of  Man. 

99.  Men  who  ent  eavor  to  imitate  us  we  like  much 
better  than  those  who  endeavor  to  equal  us.  Imitation 
is  a  sign  of  esteem,  but  competition  of  envy. 

100.  God  and  truth  are  one  and  the  same  thing ; 
whence  we  must  conclude  that  every  truth  which  the 
human  intellect  is  capable  of  receiving  comes  to  it  from 
God  ;  that  without  Him  it  would  know  no  truth,  and 
that  He  has  granted  to  men,  according  to  times  and 
circumstances,  all  truths  that  were  necessary  to  them. 

Joseph  de  Maistre  :  Les  Soirees  de  Saint  Pctersbourg. 

loi.  It  is  the  intention  which  gives  to  our  acts  their 
real  hu:    ^n  meaning,  their  moral  worth.     Apart  from 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


21 


its  intention  an  act  is  merely  the  production  of  an 
intellectual  machine.  We  cannot  say  that  an  action  is 
really  good,  although  it  may  be  good  in  its  outward 
form  and  drift,  until  we  know  something  of  the  purpose 
with  which  the  agent  went  to  work ;  and  thus  many 
actions,  in  themselves  excellent,  are  corrupted  by  a  bad 

motive.        LiDDON  :  Sermon  on  "  The  Premattire  Judgments  of  Man."" 

102.  Forty  years  ago  I  was  not,  and  ^here  was  in  me 
no  power  of  ever  becoming,  just  as  it  does  not  depend 
on  me,  who  now  am,  to  cease  from  being ;  I  have  there- 
fore had  a  beginning,  and  I  continue  to  be  through 
something  outside  of  myself,  lasting  after  me,  and  better 
and  more  powerful  than  myself. 

La  Bruyere  :  Dcs  Esprits  Forts. 

103.  Those  who  will  come  after  us  will  perhaps  know 
more  than  we  do,  and  will  think  very  much  better  of 
themselves  on  that  account ;  but  will  they  really  be  hap- 
pier or  wiser  ?  Are  we,  who  know  much,  better  than 
our  fathers  who  knew  so  little } 

Vauvenargues  :  Reflexions,  537- 

104.  There  is  certainly  no  reason  why  any  individual 
should  sacrifice  others  for  himself  alone  ;  neither  is  there 
any  why  society  should  purchase  peace  by  the  ruin  of 
one  of  its  own  members.  Society  never  has  the  right 
to  punish,  but  only  to  correct.  Every  punishment 
which  has  not  for  its  object  the  happiness  of  the  indi- 
vidual at  whom  it  is  directed,  is  an  injustice. 

FORTIA- 


22 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


-:•■  II 


Ttf 


ii 


105.  One  cannot  have  a  great  soul,  or  an  acute  mind, 
without  some  passion  for  letters.  The  arts  are  devoted 
to  depicting  the  characteristics  of  beautiful  nature  ;  the 
sciences,  to  truth.  The  arts  and  sciences  comprise  every- 
thing that  is  noble  and  useful  in  thought ;  so  that  those 
who  reject  them  have  nothing  left  but  what  is  unworthy 
of  being  depicted  or  taught. 

Vauvenargues  :  Z>^  D Esprit  Humain,  XXVI IL 

106.  God  can  only  have  made  us  for  himself  —  in 
order  that  we  should  know  Him,  for  instance.  Now, 
our  minds  are  finite  and  God  is  infinite.  We  must  there- 
fore exist  eternally  in  order  to  know  Him  ;  for  a  finite 
mind  requires  infinite  time  to  see  an  infinite  being. 

Malebranche. 


107.  My  grandmother  would  say,  for  example  :  "  What- 
ever sin  is  committed  against  an  infinite  being  is  an 
infinite  evil.  Every  infinite  evil  deserves  infinite  pun- 
ishment ;  therefore  every  sin  of  man  deserves  an  infinite 
punishment."  My  Uncle  Bill,  on  the  other  side,  would 
say  :  "  No  act  of  a  finite  being  can  be  infinite.  Man  is 
a  finite  being ;  therefore  no  sin  of  man  can  be  infinite. 
No  finite  evil  deserves  infinite  punishment.  Man's  sins 
are  finite  evils  ;  therefore  man's  sins  do  not  deserve 
infinite  punishment."  When  the  combatants  had  got 
thus  far,  they  generally  looked  at  each  other  in  silence. 

H.  B.  Stowe  :  Old  Town  Folks. 

108.  When  the  eyelids  wink  at  a  flash  of  light,  or  a 
threatened  blow,  a  reflex  action  takes  place,  in  which 


\ 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


23 


the  afferent  nerves  are  the  optic,  the  efferent,  the  facial. 
When  a  bad  smell  causes  a  grimace,  there  is  a  reflex 
action  through  the  same  motor  nerve,  while  the  olfac- 
tory nerves  constitute  the  afferent  channels.  In  these 
cases,  therefore,  reflex  action  must  be  effected  through 
the  brain,  all  the  nerves  involved  being  cerebral. 

Huxley  :  Elementary  Physiology. 

109.  We  have  been  saying  in  thousands  of  treatises 
on  Logic,  All  men  are  mortal :  Socrates  is  a  man,  there- 
fore Socrates  is  mortal.  The  elephant  reasons :  All 
boys  are  bun-giving  animals  ;  that  biped  is  a  boy  ;  there- 
fore I  will  hold  out  my  trunk  to  him.  A  philosopher 
says.  The  barometer  is  rising,  and  therefore  we  shall 
have  fine  weather ;  his  dog  says.  My  master  is  putting 
on  his  hat,  and  therefore  I  am  going  to  have  a  walk. 
A  dog  equals  a  detective  in  the  sharpness  with  which 
he  infers  general  objectionableness  from  ragged  clothes. 
A  clever  dog  draws  more  refined  inferences.  If  he  is 
not  up  to  enough  simple  arithmetic  to  count  seven,  he 
can  at  least  say.  Everybody  is  looking  so  gloomy,  that 
it  must  be  Sunday  morning. 

Leslie  Stephen  :  Essays  on  Frcethinking  and 
Plain-speaking,  p.  80. 

110.  I  heard  a  philosopher  say  one  day: —  '*  I  have 
the  idea  of  a  free  will.  Now  round  about  me  nothing 
is  free.  Hence  it  is  within  myself  that  I  must  have 
obtained  this  idea.  Otherwise,  it  would  come  from 
nowhere,  it  would  have  no  raison  d'etre ;  and  thus  by 
the  mere  idea  which  I  have  of  my  free  will,  I  am  certain 

that  1  am  tree.        Georges  Renard  :  V Homme,  est-il  libre?  p.  53. 


A. 


I 


24 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


111.  Men  will  be  punished,  and  God  is  the  one  who 
will  inflict  the  punishment ;  hence  the  punishment  is 
just,  and  consequently  he  who  is  punished  is  guilty. 
He  might  therefore  have  acted  otherwise,  and  possesses 
freedom  within  himself.  He  is  consequently  capable  of 
determining  his  own  actions. 

Leibnitz  :  Nouveaux  Essais,  Bk.  IV,  ch.  17,  sec.  4. 

112.  Let  US  take  Locke's  own  instance,  from  his 
4th  Book,  sec.  10,  where,  disdainfully  discarding  the 
syllogism,  he  asserts  that  the  enthymeme  is  the  sufficient 
account  of  our  reasonings.  *'  A  just  God  will  punish  men 
for  their  evil  works:  Therefore  men  have  free  choice." 
Why  does  this  conclusion  :  that  men  have  free  choice, 
flow  from  the  fact,  that  a  just  God  will  punish  their  sins  } 
Only  because  it  is  assumed  that  we  are,  of  course,  agreed 
upon  another  judgment ;  namely  :  that  freedom  is  essen- 
tial to  responsibility.  Unless  that  is  virtually  in  the 
mind,  the  conclusion  is  not  seen  as  certainly  true.  So 
that  after  all  the  full  statement  of  the  citation  must  take 
this  form. 

Freedom  in  the  agent  is  necessary  to  a  just  responsi- 
bility. 
God  (who  is  just)  will  hold  men  responsible ; 
Therefore  men  are  free  agents. 

R.  L.  Dabney  :   The  Sensualistic  Philosophy^  p.  267. 

113.  He  (Rousseau)  believes — and  I  with  him — that 
one  is  born  without  vice,  because  without  ideas ;  but  for 
the  same  reason  one  is  also  born  without  virtue.  If  vice 
is  foreign  to  human  nature,  virtue  must  be  so  likewise. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


25 


Both  can  only  be  acquired.  This  is  why  one  is  not 
deemed  capable  of  sin  before  the  age  of  seven  years, 
because  up  to  that  time  one  can  have  no  exact  idea  of 
justice  and  injustice,  nor  any  knowledge  of  duties  towards 

one's  fellow-men.  Helvetius  :  De  VHomme,  Sect.  V,  ch.  i. 

114.  As  every  Prince  should  govern,  as  he  would 
desire  to  be  governed  if  he  were  a  Subject,  so  every 
Subject  should  obey,  as  he  would  desire  to  be  obeyed  if 
he  were  a  Prince ;  since  this  Moral  Principle  of  doing  as 
you  would  be  done  by,  is  certainly  the  most  undisputed 
and  universally  allowed  of  any  other  in  the  world,  how 
ill  so  ever  it  may  be  practised  by  particular  men. 

Sir  William  Temple:  Of  Popular  Discontents. 

115.  Having  proved  that  the  Right  of  a  Father  pro- 
ceeds from  the  generation  and  education  of  his  Children  : 
That  no  man  can  have  that  Right  over  those  whom  he 
hath  not  begotten  and  educated  :  That  every  man  hath 
it  over  those  who  owe  their  Birth  and  Education  to  him 
...  it  plainly  appears,  that  no  Father  can  have  a  Right 
over  others,  unless  it  be  by  them  granted  to  him,  and 
that  he  receive  his  Right  from  those  who  granted  it. 

Algernon  Sidney  :  Discourses  Concernittg  Goiiernment,  I,  20. 

116.  "  In  vaine,"  said  then  old  Melibee,  "doe  men 
The  heavens  of  their  fortunes  fault  accuse ; 
Sith  they  know  best  what  is  the  best  for  them : 
For  they  to  each  such  fortune  doe  diffuse,      -  . 
As  they  do  know  each  can  most  aptly  use. 

For  not  that,  which  men  covet  most,  is  best ; 


^i 


•  !i 


!■ 


If 


-1 


26 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


Nor  that  thing  worst,  which  men  do  most  refuse ; 

But  fittest  is,  that  all  contented  rest 

With  that  they  hold  ;  each  hath  his  fortune  in  his  brest." 

Spenser  :  The  Faerie  Queene,  VI,  9,  29. 

117.  Such  orders  as  were  commanded  by  God  may 
not  be  changed  in  any  case,  only  because  God  com- 
manded them  ;  for,  as  God  is  everlasting,  so  is  his  word 
and  commandment  everlasting.  Of  the  other  side,  such 
orders  as  have  been  devised  by  men  may  be  broken, 
upon  some  good  consideration,  only  because  they  were 
men  that  devised  them ;  for  as  men  themselves  be 
mortal,   so   all    their   wisdoms    and    inventions    be  but 

mortal.  Bisuov  luwui.:  Feply  to  Dr.  Cole. 

118.  Sufficiency,  power,  etc.,  are  all  desired,  because 
they  are  esteemed  a  good.  Good  is  the  cause  why  all 
things  are  desired.  For  that  which  contains  no  good, 
either  in  reality  or  appearance,  can  never  be  desired. 
On  the  contrary,  things  not  essentially  good  are  desired 
because  they  appear  to  be  real  goods.  Hence,  good  is 
esteemed  as  the  cause  and  end  of  all  things  we  desire. 

BoETHius:  Consolations. 


119.  Since  it  is  certain  that  all  right  flows  from  the 
fountain  of  justice,  so  that  nothing  can  possibly  be  any 
man's  right  that  is  not  just,  it  is  a  most  wicked  thing  in 
you  to  affirm,  that  for  a  king  to  be  unjust,  rapacious, 
tyrannical,  and  as  ill  as  the  worst  of  them  ever  was,  is 
according  to  the  right  of  kings.  ^         • 

Mi'L'YO^  :  A  Defence  of  the  People  of  England. 


-        .        ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC.  2'J 

120.  Religion  has  its  proper  end  in  contemplation 
and  in  conduct.  Art  aims  at  presenting  sensuous  em- 
bodiment of  thoughts  and  feelings  with  a  view  to  intel- 
lectual enjoyment.  Now  many  thoughts  are  incapable 
of  sensuous  embodiment ;  they  appear  as  abstractions  to 
the  philosophical  intellect  or  as  dogmas  to  the  theological 
understanding.  To  effect  an  alliance  between  art  and 
philosophy  or  art  and  theology  in  the  specific  region  of 
either  religion  or  speculation  is,  therefore,  an  impossi- 
bility. 

J.  A.  Symonds:  Renaissance  in  Italy —  The  Fine  Arts —  pp.  29,  30. 


121.  Having  proved  that  the  Latin  commentary 
would  not  have  been  an  intelligent  servant,  I  will  show 
why  it  would  not  have  been  an  obedient  one.  He  is 
obedient  who  has  that  good  disposition  which  we  call 
obedience.  True  obedience  should  have  three  things, 
without  which  it  is  none :  it  must  be  sweet,  and  not 
bitter  ;  entirely  under  command  and  not  spontaneous  ; 
and  it  must  be  limited  and  not  unbounded.  These  three 
things  it  was  impossible  for  the  Latin  commentary  to 
possess  ;  and  therefore  it  was  impossible  for  it  to   be 

obedient.  Dante  :  //  Convito,  Bk.  I,  ch.  7  (transl.  by  K.  Hillard). 


i 


122.  The  Venus  of  Milo  has  the  left  side  of  the  head 
more  developed  than  the  other.  .  .  .  Henke,  resting  on 
this  fact,  holds  that  the  Venus  is  not  a  faultless  master- 
piece, for,  says  he,  the  ideal  or  rather  the  normal  counte- 
nance is  perfectly  symmetrical.  This  conclusion  was 
rejected  by  Hasse,  who  undertook  to  demonstrate  that 


28 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


the  normal   countenance  is   clearly   unsymmetrical  and 
that  the  perfectly  symmetrical  countenance,  if  it  exists, 

IS  an  anomaly.         Bieuvliet:  Revue  PhUosophigue,  ¥&hr\x2ixy,  !?>()(). 

123.  I  hold  that  a  long  poem  does  not  exist.  I  main- 
tain that  the  phrase,  "a  long  poem,"  is  simply  a  flat 
contradiction  in  terms.  I  need  scarcely  observe  that  a 
poem  deserves  its  title  only  inasmuch  as  it  excites,  by 
elevating  the  soul.  The  value  of  the  poem  is  in  the 
ratio  of  this  elevating  excitement.  But  all  excitements 
are,  through  a  psychal  necessity,  transient.  That  degree 
of  excitement  which  would  entitle  a  poem  to  be  called  so 
at  all,  cannot  be  sustained  throughout  a  composition  of 
any  great  length.  After  the  lapse  of  half-an-hour  at  the 
very  iitmost,  it  flags  —  fails  —  a  revulsion  ensues  —  and 
then  the  poem  is  in  effect,  and  in  fact,  no  longer  such. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe  :   The  Poetic  Principle. 

124.  The  deductive  inquirer  .  .  .  will  argue  thus  : 
poetry  appeals  to  the  imagination,  mathematics  to  the 
understanding.  To  work  the  imagination  is  more  excit- 
ing than  to  work  the  understanding,  and  what  is  habit- 
ually exciting  is  usually  unhealthy.  But  what  is  usually 
unhealthy  will  tend  to  shorten  life ;  therefore  poetry 
tends  more  than  mathematics  to  shorten  life ;  therefore 
on  the  whole  poets  will  die  sooner  than  mathematicians. 

Henry  Thomas  Buckle  :  Miscellaneous  and  Posthumous 
Works,  Vol,  I,  p.  7. 

125.  That  Alexander  exerted  his  supreme  authority 
over  all  his  subjects  is  quite  certain.    And  yet  in  this  he 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


29 


differed  absolutely  from  a  tyrant,  such  as  the  Greeks 
knew,  that  he  called  together  his  peers  and  asked  them 
to  pass  legal  sentence  upon  a  subject  charged  with  grave 
offences  against  the  king.  No  Greek  tyrant  ever  could 
do  this,  for  he  had  around  him  no  halo  of  legitimacy,  and 
moreover  he  permitted  no  order  of  nobility  among  his 

subjects.  J,  p,  Mahaffy:  Greek  Life  and  Thought,  c\\.  2. 

126.  By  the  manifest  and  plain  words  of  the  scrip- 
tures, and  the  consent  of  the  most  ancient  authors  before 
written,  it  is  evident  that  neither  the  visions  of  angels, 
apparitions  of  the  dead,  nor  miracles,  nor  all  these  joined 
together  in  one,  are  able  or  sufficient  to  make  any  one 
new  article  of  our  faith,  or  stablish  anything  in  religion, 
without  the  express  words  of  God  ;  because  all  such 
things  (as  is  before  proved)  may  be,  yes,  and  have  been, 
through  God's  permission,  for  our  sins'  and  unbelief's 
sake,  done  by  the  power  of  the  devil  himself,  or  feigned 
and  counterfeited  of  his  lively  members,  monks  and  friars, 
with  other  such  hypocrites. 

Cranmer  :  A  Confutation  of  Unwritten  Verities^  ch.  11,  74. 

127.  We  notice  an  important  distinction  between 
suffering  for  another  and  being  punished  for  another. .  .  . 
Punishment  implies  guilt,  and  the  notion  of  an  innocent 
man  being  punished  for  the  guilty  is  a  moral  contradic- 
tion. The  innocent  man  may  and  does  suffer  for  the 
guilty ;  that  he  should  be  punished  for  the  guilty  is 
inconceivable,  for  guilt  and  with  it  moral  condemnation 
are  intransferable.     To   speak,  therefore,  of    Vicarious 


\\ 


V  VX 


% 


\  ) 


30 


JLLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


Suffering  has  nothing  in  it  to  shock  morality  :  Vicarious 
Punishment  (if  the  full  meaning  of  the  idea  is  realised) 
is  immoral. 

S.  H.  Butcher  :  Some  Aspects  of  the  Greek  Genius^  p.  12a 

128.  When  a  manufactured  object  is  so  made  as  to 
be  perfectly  fitted  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed, 
when,  as  in  the  case  of  simple  objects  of  universal  use, 
the  form  has  been  so  modified  by  continual  and  gradual 
improvements  (without  ulterior  intention  of  making  it 
more  beautiful)  as  to  have  all  that  is  requisite  and 
nothing  that  is  superfluous,  and  when  in  addition  it  is 
constructed  in  the  manner  best  calculated  to  make  it 
strong  and  durable,  it  has  this  beauty,  which  I  call  the 
beauty  of  fitness.  Now  these  arc  the  characteristics  of 
all  that  kind  of  work  of  which  the  rules  are  handed  down 
from  father  to  son,  or  from  master  to  apprentice,  and 
which  is  called  therefore  traditional  work  ;  consequently, 
we  always  find  that  traditional  work  has  some  elements 

of  beauty  in  it.  e.  J.  Poynter  :   Ten  Lectures  on  Art,  pp.  6,  7. 

129.  Tragedy  is  the  highest  earnestness  of  poetry  ; 
Comedy  altogether  sportive.  Now  earnestness  .  .  .  con- 
sists in  the  direction  of  the  mental  powers  to  an  aim  or 
purpose,  and  the  limitation  of  their  activity  to  that  object. 
Its  opposite,  therefore,  consists  in  the  apparent  want  of 
aim,  and  freedom  from  all  restraint  in  the  exercise  of  the 
mental  powers  ;  and  it  is  therefore  the  more  perfect,  the 
more  unreservedly  it  goes  to  work,  and  the  more  lively 
the  appearance  there  is  of  purposeless  fun  and  unre- 

Stramed  caprice.    Aug.  W.  von  Schlegel  :  Dramatic  Art,  p.  147. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


31 


130.  Liberty,  indeed,  though  among  the  greatest  of 
blessings,  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  protection  ;  inasmuch, 
as  the  end  of  the  former  is  the  progress  and  improve- 
ment of  the  race,  —  while  that  of  the  latter  is  its  pres- 
ervation and  perpetuation.  And  hence,  when  the  two 
come  into  conflict,  liberty  must,  and  ever  ought,  to  yield 
to  protection  ;  as  the  existence  of  the  race  is  of  greater 
moment  than  its  improvement. 

John  C.  Calhoun  :  A  Disquisitiott  on  Government. 


i  li 


131.  Since  therefore  the  knowledge  and  survey  of 
vice  is  in  this  world  so  necessary  to  the  constituting  of 
human  virtue,  and  the  scanning  of  error  to  the  confirma- 
tion of  truth,  how  can  we  more  safely  and  with  less 
danger,  scout  into  the  regions  of  sin  and  falsity,  than  by 
reading  all  manner  of  tractates,  and  hearing  all  manner 
of  reason  "i  And  this  is  the  benefit  which  may  be  had 
of  books  promiscuously  read.  milton  :  Arcopasitica. 


% 


'  1 


132.  It  is  a  singular  misuse  of  terms  to  place  a 
supposed  perfection  at  the  very  beginning  of  a  language. 
What  is  true,  is  that  in  ascending  step  by  step  the  his- 
torical course  of  a  language,  and  thus  catching  the  latter 
in  the  very  act  of  transformation,  we  distinguish  with 
greater  certainty  the  laws  that  govern  its  changes. 
Every  language  is  thus  more  regular,  simpler,  more 
symmetrical  in  some  sense,  at  the  epoch  of  its  origin 
and  infancy,  than  at  any  other  period  of  its  existence  or 
its  development.  But  in  no  case  that  anyone  knows  of 
—  in  no  art,  science,  or  order  of  things —  are  simplicity. 


! 
I 

ill 


32 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


regularity,  or  symmetry  either  synonyms  or  measures  of 
perfection.  Quite  the  contrary ;  and  since  languages 
have  actually  been  compared  to  organisms,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  any  organism  is  nearer  relative  per- 
fection, the  more  complex  it  is  —  that  is,  when  com- 
posed of  the  union  of  a  large  number  of  parts,  more 
delicately  and  subtly  put  together. 

F.  Brunetiere  :  Etudes  Critiques,  Vol.  I,  p.  6. 

133.  Reserve  is  restraint,  and  restraint  is  painful,  and 
pain  is  intolerable  to  the  self-indulgent. 

H.  D.  Traill:  The  New  Lucian,^.']\. 

134.  Want  is  the  consequence  of  profusion,  venality 
of  want,  and  dependence  of  venality. 

BOMNGBROKE  :   Tlic  Idea  of  a  Patriot  King. 


135.  Every  body  is  in  space  ;  what  is  in  space  is  in 
some  one  part  of  space ;  what  is  in  one  part  of  space 
may  be  in  another ;  what  may  be  in  another  part  of 
space  may  change  its  si>ace ;  what  may  change  its  space 
is  movable ;  therefore,  every  body  is  movable. 

Sir  William  Hamilton  :  Logic,  Lect.  XIX. 


f 


136.  No  rulers  will  do  that  which  produces  pain  to 
themselves. 

But  the  unfavorable  sentiments  of  the  people  will  give 
pain  to  them. 

Therefore,  no  rulers  will  do  anything  which  may  excite 
the  unfavorable  sentiments  of  the  people. 


i 


!i 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


33 


i 


But  the  unfavorable  sentiments  of  the  people  are  excited 
by  everything  which  hurts  them. 

Therefore,  no  rulers  will  do  anything  which  may  hurt 

tne  people.  Macaulay  :  James  Mill's  Essay  on  Government. 

137.  Seeing  that  all  men  desire  happiness,  and  happi- 
ness is  gained  by  a  right  use  of  the  things  of  life  ;  and 
the  right  use  of  them,  and  good  fortune  in  the  use  of 
them,  are  given  by  knowledge ;  the  inference  is  that 
every  man  ought  by  all  means  to  try  to  make  himself 
as  wise  as  he  can. 

138.  True  happiness  cannot  consist  in  things  that  are 
inconsistent  with  the  nature  and  state  of  man.  This  . . . 
naturally  flows  from  the  very  notion  of  good  and  evil. 
For  whatever  is  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  a  being, 
tends  for  this  very  reason  to  degrade  or  destro}^  it,  to 
corrupt  or  alter  its  constitution  ;  which  being  directly 
opposite  to  the  preservation,  perfection,  and  good  of  this 
being,  subverts  the  foundation  of  its  felicity.  Wherefore 
reason  being  the  noblest  part  of  man,  and  constituting  his 
principal  essence,  whatever  is  inconsistent  with  reason 
cannot  form  his  happiness. 

BuRLAMAQUi :  The  Principles  of  Natural  Law,  Pt.  I,  ch.  6. 

139.  Warning,  it  is  said,  is  the  end  of  punishment. 
But  a  punishment  inflicted;  not  by  a  general  rule,  but 
by  an  arbitrary  discretion,  cannot  serve  the  purpose  of 
a  warning.  It  is  tlierefore  useless  ;  and  useless  pain 
ought  not  to  be  inflicted. 

Macaulay  :  Hallani's  Constitutional  History. 


34 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


140.  All  living,  in  the  first  place,  however  common- 
place its  aims,  however  accidental  its  ideals,  involves  a 
deep  paradox.  We  long  to  live.  Very  well,  then,  we 
long  to  be  active.  For  life  means  activity  ;  and  activity 
that  again  means  longing,  striving,  suffering,  lack,  hoping 
for  the  end  of  the  activity  in  which  we  are  immediately 
engaged.  .  .  .  Life  is  will ;  and  every  will  aims  at  i^s 
own  completion,  that  is,  at  its  own  cessation.  I  will  c 
be  wiser  than  I  am.  Well,  then,  I  will  that  my  present 
foolishness  shall  cease.  I  will  to  get  somebody's  love ; 
and  that  means  that  I  will  the  cessation  of  my  unloved 
condition.  Every  will  aims  at  the  attainment  of  its 
desire ;  and  attainment  is  the  death  of  just  this  desire, 
and  so  of  just  this  act  of  will.     And  yet,  on  the  whole, 

1  will  to  live.       J    RoYCE  :  The  Spirit  of  Modern  Philosophy,  p.  455. 

141.  Whether  the  universe  is  (a  concourse  of)  atoms, 
or  nature  (is  a  system),  let  this  first  be  established,  that 
I  am  a  part  of  the  whole  which  is  governed  by  nature ; 
next,  I  am  in  a  manner  intimately  related  to  the  parts 
which  are  of  the  same  kind  with  myself.  For  remem- 
bering this,  inasmuch  as  I  am  a  part,  I  shall  be  discon- 
tented with  none  of  the  things  which  are  assigned  to  me 
out  of  the  whole  ;  for  nothing  is  injurious  to  the  part,  if 
it  is  for  the  advantage  of  the  whole.  For  the  whole 
contains  nothing  which  is  not  for  its  advantage  ;  and  all 
natures  indeed  have  this  common  principle,  but  the 
nature  of  the  universe  has  this  principle  besides,  that 
it  cannot  be  compelled  even  by  any  external  cause  to 
generate  anything  harmful  to  itself.     By  remembering 


I 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


35 


then  that  I  am  a  part  of  such  a  whole,  I  shall  be  content 
with  everything  that  happens. 

M.  AuRELius :  M^<//Vc/'io«j,  X  (transl.  by  Long), 

142.  Omnis  concordia  dependet  ab  unitate,  quae  est 
in  voluntatibus.  Genus  humanum  optime  se  habens  est 
quaedam  concordia ;  nam  sicut  unus  homo  optime  se 
habens,  et  quantum  ad  animam,  et  quantum  ad  corpus, 
est  concordia  quaedam  :  et  similiter  domus,  civitas,  et 
regnum  :  sic  totum  genus  humanum.  Ergo  genus  hu- 
manum optime  se  habens  ab  unitate  quae  est  in  volun- 
tatibus dependet.  Sed  hoc  esse  non  potest ;  nisi  sit 
voluntas  una,  domina  et  regulatrix  omnium  aliarum  in 
unum.  .  .  .  Nee  una  ista  potest  esse,  nisi  sit  Princeps 
unus  omnium,  cujus  voluntas  domina  et  regulatrk  ali- 
arum omnium  esse  possit.  Quod  si  omnes  consequentiae 
superiores  verae,  quod  sunt ;  necesse  est,  ad  optime  se 
habere  humanum  genus,  Monarcham  esse  in  mundo ;  et 
per  consequens  Monarchiam  ad  bene  esse  mundi. 

Dante:  De  Alonarchia^W&.V. 


143.  Haeckel  seeks  to  get  out  of  a  difficulty  by 
assuming  that  the  principle  of  life  has  its  origin  in  the 
physical  and  chemical  properties  of  albuminous  bodies. 
And  how  are  these  albuminous  bodies  formed  t  By  the 
tendency  of  carbon  towards  manifold  combinations  with 
other  elements.  And  what  is  the  cause  of  this  tendency 
and  also  of  all  other  chemical  properties  of  bodies  ?  "  I 
do  not  know,"  answers  Haeckel.  "Then,"  it  may  be 
replied,   ''if  your  hypothesis  is  sound,  you  have  done 


36 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


! 


nothing  more  than  remove  the  mystery  a  little  farther, 
and  if  the  cause  of  your  vital  principle  springs  in  its  turn 
from  an  unknown  cause,  your  explanation  is  reduced  to 
this  :  —  The  original  cause  of  life  is  equal  to  .r." 

Antonio  Fogazzaro, 

144.  There  is  1.  iligion  possible  without  a  single 
visible  Church. 

There  is  no  Church  without  government. 
There  is  no  government  without  sovereignty. 
There  is  no  sovereignty  without  infallibility. 
Hence,  there  can  be  no  religion  without  infallibility. 

Joseph  de  Maistre :  "  Le  Pape"  as  summed  tip  by  Edmond Scherer. 

145.  The  Church,  according  to  the  Catholic  doctrine, 
is  the  visible  community,  founded  by  Christ,  of  all  the 
faithful,  in  which  the  active  operation  of  purifying  from 
sin  and  sanctifying  mankind,  developed  in  it  during  His 
existence  on  earth,  is  perpetuated,  under  the  guidance  of 
His  Spirit,  to  the  end  of  the  world,  by  means  of  an  apos- 
tolate,  instituted  by  Him,  and  of  uninterrupted  duration. 
The  bishops  are  the  direct  successors  of  the  apostles. 
To  them  are  transferred,  through  ordination  and  the 
laying  on  of  hands,  the  same  graces  and  spiritual  gifts 
which  their  predecessors  received  from  Christ,  and  which 
they,  in  like  manner,  transmit  by  ordination  to  the  priests. 
The  episcopate  is,  therefore,  an  institution  ordained  by 
God  —  the  legitimate  organ  and  exclusive  vehicle  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  And  since  an  institution  of  this  kind 
requires,  for  the  purpose  of  asserting  its  unity,  a  cen- 
tre, God  has  placed  at  the  head  of  the  whole  Church 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


37 


a  supreme  overseer,  the  successor  of  the  Prince  of  the 
Apostles,  St.  Peter,  as  His  sovereign  Vicar  and  repre- 
sentative whose  further  duty  it  is  to  govern  the  church 
through  authorities  appointed  by  himself.  The  hierarchy 
—  or  the  priesthood  of  the  new  dispensation  —  is  essen- 
tial, therefore,  for  the  continuance  and  completion  of  the 
work  of  redemption.  The  episcopate,  through  its  head, 
thus  representing  the  church,  its  decisions  on  points  of 
doctrine  are  consequently  infallible. 

Geffcken  :  Church  and  State  (transl.  by  E.  F.  Taylor), 
Vol.  I,  ch.  II,  pp.  293,  294. 

146.  Since  infinite  is  the  same  with  absolutely  perfect, 
we  having  a  notion  or  idea  of  the  latter,  must  needs  have 
of  the  former.  From  whence  we  learn  also,  that  though 
the  word  infinite  be  in  the  form  thereof  negative,  yet  is 
the  sense  of  it,  in  those  things  which  are  really  capable 
of  the  same,  positive,  it  being  all  one  with  absolutely  per- 
fect ;  as  likewise  the  sense  of  the  word  finite  is  negative, 
it  being  the  same  with  imperfect.  So  that  finite  is  prop- 
erly the  negation  of  infinite,  as  that  which  in  order  of 
nature  is  before   it ;  and  not   infinite  the  negation  of 

nnite.  Cudworth:   The  intellectual  System  of  the  Universe^  ^.^. 


147.  I  am  a  finite  being,  God  is  infinite :  I  am  imper- 
fect and  defective.  God  is  perfect  and  without  defects. 
It  is,  therefore,  impossible  for  me  to  be  the  cause  of  this 
idea.  Either  I  cannot  have  such  a  conception  at  all,  or 
its  cause  must  be  a  being  of  like  reality  ;  i.e.,  God  him- 
self. But  I  have  the  idea  of  God ;  and  in  this  case,  to 
have  it  is  equivalent  to  having  received  it.     Every  con- 


38 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


ception,  as  every  phenomenon,  has  its  cause.  If  I  clearly 
and  distinctly  perceive  that  I  cannot  be  this  cause,  I  know 
just  as  clearly  and  distinctly  that  it  must  be  without  me ; 
that  there  is,  therefore,  a  being  without  me. 

KuNO  Fischer:  Descartes  and  His  School,  p.  344  (transl.  by  Cordy). 

148.  How  reconcile  the  existence  of  evil  with  the 
being  and  rule  of  a  wise  and  good  God,  almighty  to 
effect  what  love  proposes  and  wisdom  plans }  .  .  .  There 
is  but  one  answer  to  this  question.  What  love  proposes 
and  wisdom  plans  must  needs  be  good.  This  funda- 
mental truth  of  practical  reason  is  the  only  solution  of 
the  problem.  In  the  view  and  intent  of  a  Being  of 
infinite  wisdom  and  goodness,  there  can  be  no  evil. 
Such  a  being  sees  and  knows  and  does  only  good. 
What  we  call  evil,  therefore,  the  evil  of  our  experience, 
when  referred  to  its  source,  has  precisely  the  same  char- 
acter with  that  which  we  call  good.  If  God  is  good,  and 
if  all  that  is  proceeds  from  him,  there  is  no  evil. 

F.  H.  Hedge:  Ways  of  the  Spirit  and  Other  Essays.     Quoted  by 
James  Martineau,  A  Study  of  Religion,  Vol.  II,  p.  56. 

149.  I.  The  aim  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  is  to 
found  and  increase  the  lordship  of  man,  the  domain  of 
culture. 

II.  There  can  be  no  culture  without  discovery,  which 
gives  the  powers  of  nature  into  the  hands  of  man. 

III.  There  can  be  no  discovery  without  science,  which 
brings  the  laws  of  phenomena  into  light. 

IV.  There  can  be  no  science  without  knowledge  of 
nature.  * 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


39 


\ 


\ 


V.  This  knowledge  of  nature  can  have  but  one  course 
to  pursue,  namely,  that  of  experience. 

KuNO  Fischer  :  Bacon. 

150.  Every  attempt  to  interpret  the  succession  of 
mental  phenomena  by  means  of  theorems  originally 
devised  to  interpret  the  movements  of  matter,  involves 
the  assertion  of  materialism  ;  the  assertion  of  materialism 
involves  the  denial  of  personal  immortality ;  the  denial 
of  personal  immortality  deprives  morality  of  its  principal 
sanction,  and  prevents  us  from  having  any  higher  ideal 
of  life  than  the  gratification  of  egoistic  desires  ;  ergo,  we 
are  justified  in  insinuating  that  philosophers  who  inter- 
pret mental  manifestations  by  a  reference  to  material 
structure  are  likely  to  be  men  of  loose  morals. 

FiSKE  :  Cosmic  Philosophy^  Vol.  II,  p.  434. 

151.  You  know  what  Pericles  said  of  his  son's  dog 
Azor ;  —  Azor  rules  my  boy,  my  boy  rules  his  mother, 
his  mother  rules  me,  I  rule  Athens,  Athens  rules 
Greece,  and  Greece  rules  the  world,  —  wherefore  Azor 
is  the  ruler  of  the  world.  Same  remark  applies  to 
Mdlle.  Mimi  Triboulette's  dog,  Bichon.  Bichon  gov- 
erns Mdl]  '.  Mimi,  Mimi  governs  the  Parisian  public, 
the  Parisian  public  governs  Europe,  Europe  governs  the 
two  hemispheres  ;  ergo,  Bichon  is  the  governor  of  the 
universe. 

E.  C.  Grenville  Murray  :  French  Pictures  in  English  Chalk. 

152.  And  the  first  thing  I  would  do  in  my  govern- 
ment, I  would  have  nobody  to  control  me,  I  would  be 


40 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC 


absolute ;  and  who  but  I ;  now,  he  that  is  absolute  can 
do  what  he  likes ;  he  that  can  do  what  he  likes  can  take 
his  pleasure ;  he  that  can  take  his  pleasure  can  be  con- 
tent ;  and  he  that  can  be  content  has  no  more  to  desire. 

Cervantes:  Saticho  Panza  in  Don  Quixote. 

153'  -^  good  king  alone  can  derive  his  right  to  gov- 
ern from  God.  The  reason  is  plain  :  good  government 
alone  can  be  in  the  divine  intention.  God  has  made  us 
to  desire  happiness ;  he  has  made  our  happiness  depend 
on  society ;  and  the  happiness  of  society  depend  on 
good  or  bad  government.  His  intention  was,  therefore, 
that  government  should  be  good. 

BoLiNGBROKE  :  The  Idea  of  a  Patriot  King. 

154.  Sovereignty  cannot  be  represented,  for  the  same 
reason  that  it  cannot  be  alienated ;  it  consists  essentially 
in  the  general  will,  and  will  is  not  representable :  it  is 
the  same,  or  it  is  another ;  there  is  no  middle  choice. 
The  deputies  of  the  people  can  therefore  not  be  its 
representatives ;  they  are  only  commissioners  :  they  can 
conclude  nothing  definitively.  Every  law  unratified  by 
the  people  is  null  and  void  :  it  is  not  a  law  at  all.  The 
English  think  themselves  free,  but  are  much  mistaken  ; 
they  are  so  only  during  the  election  of  members  of  par- 
liament ;  as  soon  as  the  latter  are  elected,  the  former 
are  slaves  ;  they  become  nothing. 

Rousseau  :  Social  Contract,  III,  15. 

155.  The  people  are  sovereign  by  natural  right ;  of 
this  sovereignty,  the  suffrage  is  the  external  manifes- 
tation, and  is  consequently  also  a  natural  right. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


41 


All  citizens  share  alike  in  this  natural  right,  and  are 
therefore  all  electors  on  the  same  footing  and  in  the 
same  manner  or  sense. 

Sovereignty  then  dwells  in  the  people,  that  is  to  say, 
in  the  electors  ;  he  who  is  elected  receives  it  only  by 
delegation,    and    is    therefore    the    mandatory    of    his 

electors.  Charles  Benoist  (Sybil),  in  Revue  Bleue. 

156.  No  one  is  born  a  slave ;  because  every  one  is 
born  with  his  natural  rights. 

No  one  can  become  a  slave ;  because  no  one  from 
being  a  person  can  become  a  thing,  a  subject  of  prop- 
erty. The  supposed  property  of  the  master  in  the 
slave  is,  therefore,  matter  of  usurpation,  not  of  right. 
Hence,  no  slavery  is  justifiable.  palky. 

157.  I  have  already  given  the  reader  to  understand 
that  the  description  of  liberty  which  seems  to  me  the 
most  comprehensive,  is  that  of  security  against  wrong. 
Liberty  is  therefore  the  object  of  all  government.  Men 
are  more  free  under  every  government,  even  the  most 
imperfect,  than  they  would  be  if  it  were  possible  for 
them  to  exist  without  any  government  at  all :  they  are 
more  secure  from  wrong,  more  undisturbed  in  the  exer- 
cise of  their  natural  powers,  and  therefore  more  free, 
even  in  the  most  obvious  and  grossest  sense  of  the 
word,  than  if  they  were  altogether  unprotected  against 
injury  from  each  other.  But  as  general  security  is 
enjoyed  in  very  different  degrees  under  different  gov- 
ernments, those  which  guard  it  most  perfectly,  are  by 
the  way  of  eminence  called  **free."     Such  governments 


> 


42 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


attain  most  completely  the  end  which  is  common  to  all 
government.  A  free  constitution  of  government  and 
a  good  constitution  of  government  are  therefore  different 
expressions  for  the  same  idea.  ... 

Sir  James  Mackintosh  :  On  the  Study  of  the  Law  of 
'  Nature  and  Nations. 

158.  It  is,  say  the  American  advocates,  the  natural 
distinction  of  a  freeman,  and  the  legal  privilege  of  an 
Englishman,  that  he  is  able  to  call  his  possessions  his 
own,  that  he  can  sit  secure  in  the  enjoyment  of  inher- 
itance or  acquisition,  that  his  house  is  fortified  by  the 
law,  and  that  nothing  can  be  taken  from  him  but  by 
his  own  consent.  This  consent  is  given  for  every  man 
by  his  representative  in  parliament.  The  Americans, 
unrepresented,  cannot  consent  to  English  taxation  as  a 
corporation,  and  they  will  not  consent  as  individuals. 

Of  this  argument,  it  has  been  observed  by  more  than 
one,  that  its  force  extends  equally  to  all  other  laws,  for 
a  freeman  is  not  to  be  exposed  to  punishment,  or  be 
called  to  any  onerous  service,  but  by  his  own  consent. 
The  Congress  has  extracted  a  position  from  the  fanci- 
ful Montesquieu,  that  **  in  a  frc"  state  every  man  being 
a  free  agent,  ought  to  be  concerned  in  his  own  govern- 
ment." Whatever  is  true  of  taxation,  is  true  of  every 
other  law,  that  he  who  is  bound  by  it,  without  his  con- 
sent,  is  not   free,  for  he  is  not  concerned  in  his  own 

government.  Samuel  Johnson  :  Taxation  no  Tyranny. 

159.  It  must  not  be  assumed,  as  some  are  fond  of 
saying,  that  democracy  is  simply  that  form  of  govern- 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


43 


.■■ 


ment  in  which  the  greater  number  are  sovereign,  for  in 
oHgarchies,  and  indeed  in  every  government,  the  major- 
ity rules ;  or  again  oHgarchy  is  that  form  of  govern- 
ment in  which  a  few  are  sovereign.  Suppose  the 
whole  population  of  a  city  to  be  1300,  and  that  of  these 
1000  are  rich,  and  do  not  allow  the  remaining  300,  who 
are  poor  but  free,  and  in  all  other  respects  their  equals, 
a  share  of  the  government  —  no  one  will  say  that  this 
is  a  democracy.  In  like  manner,  if  the  poor  were  few 
and  the  masters  of  the  rich,  who  outnumber  them,  no 
one  would  ever  call  such  a  government  in  which  the 
rich  majority  have  no  share  of  ofifice,  an  oligarchy. 
Therefore  we  should  rather  say  that  democracy  is  the 
form  of  government  in  which  the  free  are  rulers,  and 
oligarchy  in  which  the  rich  ;  it  is  only  an  accident 
that  the  free  are  the  many  and  the  rich  are  the  few. 
Otherwise  a  government  in  which  the  offices  were  given 
according  to  stature,  as  is  said  to  be  the  case  in  Ethi- 
opia, or  according  to  beauty,  would  be  an  oligarchy  ;  for 
the  number  of  tall  or  good-looking  men  is  small.  And 
yet  oligarchy  and  democracy  are  not  sufficiently  distin- 
guished merely  by  these  two  characteristics  of  wealth 
and  freedom.  Both  of  them  contain  many  other  ele- 
ments, and  therefore  we  must  carry  our  analysis  further, 
and  say  that  the  government  is  not  a  democracy  in 
which  the  freemen,  being  few  in  number,  rule  over  the 
many  who  are  not  free,  as  at  Apollonia,  on  the  Ionian 
Gulf,  and  at  Thera :  (for  in  each  of  these  states,  the 
nobles,  who  were  also  the  earliest  settlers,  were  held  in 
chief  honor,  although  they  were  but  a  few  out  of  many). 


M:'f 


!    -it 


•I 


!| 


44 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


i 


Neither  is  it  a  democracy  when  the  rich  have  the  gov- 
ernment, because  they  exceed  in  number  ;  as  was  the 
case  formerly  at  Colophon,  where  the  bulk  of  the  inhab- 
itants were  possessed  of  large  property  before  the 
Lydian  War.  But  the  form  of  government  is  a  democ- 
racy when  the  free  who  are  also  poor  and  the  majority 
govern,  and  oligarchy  when  the  rich  and  noble  govern, 
they  being  at  the  same  time  few  in  number. 

Aristotle  :  Politics,  IV,  4  (Jowett's  transl.). 

160.  Every  minister  acts  upon  the  same  idea  that 
Mr.  Burke  writes  ;  namely,  that  the  people  must  be 
hoodwinked,  and  held  in  superstitious  ignorance  by 
some  bugbear  or  other  ;  and  what  is  called  the  Crown 
answers  this  purpose,  and  therefore  it  answers  all  the 
purposes  to  be  expected  from  it.      pmne  :  Rights  of  Man. 

161.  If  the  maxim  of  the  compromiser  were  sound, 
it  ought  to  be  capable  of  universal  application.  Nobody 
has  a  right  to  make  an  apology  for  himself  in  this  mat- 
ter, which  he  will  not  allow  to  be  valid  for  others.  If 
one  has  a  right  to  conceal  his  true  opinions,  and  to 
practice  equivocal  conformities,  then  all  have  a  right. 
One   plea   for   exemption   is   in   this   case  as  good  as 

another  and  no  better.       John  Morley:  On  Compromise,  ^p.  172. 

162.  Gain  is  the  end  of  all  improvement,  and  nothing 
could  deserve  that  name  of  which  loss  was  to  be  the 
necessary  consequence.  But  loss  must  be  the  necessary 
consequence  of  improvmg  land  for  the  sake  of  a  produce 
of  which  the  price  could  never  bring  back  the  expense. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


45 


If  the  complete  improvement  and  cultivation  of  the 
country  be,  as  it  most  certainly  is,  the  greatest  of  all 
public  advantages,  this  rise  in  the  price  of  all  those 
different  sorts  of  rude  produce,  instead  of  being  con- 
sidered as  a  public  calamity,  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the 
necessary  forerunner  and  attendant  of  the  greatest  of 
all  public  advantages. 

Adam  Smith  :  Wealth  of  Nations,  I5k.  I,  ch.  ii. 

163.  What  distinguishes  one  being  from  another  is 
its  organization.  That  is  what  distinguishes  a  plant 
from  a  mineral,  an  animal  in  one  species  from  one  in 
another.  Every  being  has  therefore  its  own  nature ; 
and  because  of  having  its  own  nature,  it  is  predestined 
by  that  nature  to  a  certain  end.  If  the  end  (purpose) 
of  the  bee,  for  example,  is  not  that  of  the  lion,  and 
that  of  the  lion  again  not  identical  with  that  of  man,  the 
reason  of  it  can  be  found  nowhere  but  in  the  difference 
of  their  respective  natures.  Every  being  is  therefore 
organized  in  view  of  a  certain  end,  so  that,  if  one  only 
knew  its  nature  completely,  one  could  deduce  therefrom 
its  intention  or  end.  The  end  of  a-  being  is  what  we 
call  its  good.  There  is  consequently  an  absolute  iden- 
tity between  the  good  of  a  being  and  its  end.  Its  good 
is  to  compass  its  end,  to  travel  to  the  limit  of  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  has  been  organized. 

JouFFROY  :  Cours  de  droit  natnrel,  Ilmc  Le^on. 

164.  The  sum  is,  the  relations  of  things  cannot  exist 
without  the  coexistence  of  the  things  themselves,  or 
things    cannot   be  related   unless  they  are ;  whenever 


; 


I 


\l 


\  i 


l\ 


'  I 


46 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


therefore  they  are  related  they  must  be,  and  if  eternally 
related,  they  must  eternally  be.  Or  thus,  a  thing  must 
first  be,  before  it  can  be  related  or  have  any  other  affec- 
tion, and  therefore  cannot  be  related  when  it  is  not, 
then  neither  eternally  related  if  not  eternal,  since  other- 
wise it  would  be  related  before  it  is,  that  is,  when  it  is 
not,  which  is  impossible.  If  then  the  relations  of  things 
be  eternal,  the  things  themselves  must  be  co-eternal 
with  them,  and  since  't  is  as  certain  that  there  are  such 
eternal  relations  as  that  there  are  eternal  truths,  I  there- 
fore conclude  that  the  essences  of  things  are  eternal. 

John  Norris  :   The  Theory  of  the  Ideal  World,  Vol.  I,  p.  So. 

165.  Since  I  prove  it  to  be  possible  that  atoms  may 
be  colorless,  I  will  now  show  that  it  certainly  is  so. 
For  every  color  is,  or  may  be,  changed  into  all  colors 
whatsoever  ;  but  this  is  a  transmutation  which  primor- 
dial elements  must  by  no  means  undergo  ;  since  it  is 
necessary  that  there  should  remain  something  unchange- 
able, lest  all  things  should  be  reduced  utterly  to  nothing. 
For  whatsoever  being  changed,  goes  beyond  its  own 
limits,  this  change  forthwith  becomes  the  death  or 
termination  of  that  which  it  was  before.  Be  cautious, 
therefore,  not  to  tinge  the  seeds  of  things  with  colors, 
lest  all  things  for  your  gratification  should  be  reduced 

to  nothmg.       Lucretius  :  De  Rerum  Naiurd,  II,  748-756  (Watson). 

166.  I  will  now  show  that  there  are  things  linked  to 
no  color  from  the  beginning  of  time.  Well,  any  color 
without  any  exception  changes  into  any  other :  and  this 
first-beginnings  ought    in    no   wise   to    do :    something 


il:.ustrations  of  logic. 


47 


unchangeable  must  remain  over,  that  all  things  be  not 
utterly  reduced  to  i.othing.  For  whenever  a  thing 
changes  and  quits  its  proper  limits,  at  once  this  change 
of  state  is  the  death  of  that  which  was  before.  Therefore 
mind  not  to  dye  with  color  the  seeds  of  things,  that  you 
may  not  have  all  things  altogether  retuiiiing  to  nothing. 

LvCRUTivs:  De  J^ertitn  Naiurd,  II,  y ^8-7^16  (Mumo). 

167.  I  am  going  to  examine  in  this  discourse  the 
effect  of  nature  and  education  upon  the  mind ;  for  this 
purpose  I  must  first  determine  what  is  meant  by  the 
word  nature.  This  word  can  arouse  in  us  a  confused 
idea  of  a  being  or  a  power  that  has  endowed  us  with  all 
our  senses.  The  senses  are  the  source  of  all  our  ideas ; 
without  a  sense,  we  are  -deprived  of  the  ideas  related 
therewith  ;  for  this  reason,  a  man  born  blind  has  no  idea 
of  color ;  it  is  therefore  evident  that  in  this  sense,  mind 
must  be  wholly  considered  as  a  gift  of  nature. 

Helvetius  .  De  U Esprit,  Discours  III,  ch.  i. 

168.  For  how  the  soui  by  mutation  made  in  matter, 
a  substance  of  another  kind,  should  be  excited  to  action : 
and  how  bodily  alterations  and  motions  should  concern 
that  which  is  subject  to  neither ;  it  is  a  difficulty  which 
confidence  may  sooner  triumph  on,  than  conquer.  For 
body  cannot  act  on  anything  but  by  motion  ;  motion  can- 
not be  received  but  by  quantity  and  matter ;  the  soul  is  a 
stranger  to  such  substantiality,  and  ownes  nothing  of  these, 
but  that  it  is  cloathed  with  by  our  deceived  phancies ; 
and  therefore  how  can  we  conceive  it  subject  to  material 

lluP'tt-SSlOUS  i  Glanvill  :  Sce/sis  ScteHft^ca,ch.  ^. 


48 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


169.  But  there  is  a  still  more  irresistible  argument 
proving  to  us  the  absurdity  of  innate  principles.  Every 
principle  is  a  proposition :  either  it  affirms,  or  it  denies. 
Every  proposition  consists  in  the  connection  of  at  least 
two  distinct  ideas,  which  are  affirmed  to  agree  or  dis- 
agree with  each  other.  It  is  impossible  that  the  propo- 
sition can  be  innate,  unless  the  ideas  to  which  it  relates 
be  also  innate.  A  connection  where  there  is  nothing  to 
be  connected,  a  proposition  where  there  is  neither  sub- 
ject nor  conclusion,  is  the  most  incoherent  of  all  suppo- 
sitions. But  nothing  can  be  more  incontrovertible  than 
that  we  do  not  bring  pre-established  ideas  into  the  world 

with  us.  William  Godwin  :  Politicaljustice^  Bk,  I,  ch.  4. 

170.  Such  a  science  (of  the  absolute,  the  uncondi- 
tioned, the  real,  viz.  Metaphysics),  according  to  Kant, 
must  be  unattainable  by  man  ;  for  all  knowledge  is  con- 
sciousness, and  all  consciousness  implies  a  relation 
between  the  subject  or  person  conscious,  and  the  object 
or  thing  of  which  he  is  conscious.  An  object  of  con- 
sciousness cannot  be  the  absolute ;  for  its  existence  as 
such  implies  an  act  of  consciousness,  and  consciousness 
is  a  relation.  It  cannot  be  the  unconditioned,  for  con- 
sciousness depends  on  the  laws  of  the  conscious  mind, 
and  these  are  conditions.  It  cannot  be  the  real,  for  the 
laws  of  our  consciousness  can  only  give  us  things  as 
they  appear  to  us,  and  do  not  tell  us  what  they  are  in 

themselves.      Dean  Mansel  :  Letters,  Lectures,  and  Reviews,  p.  172. 

171.  If  one  stage  cannot  properly  present  two  rooms 
or  houses,  much  less  two  countries  or  kingdoms,  then 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


49 


there  can  be  no  unity  of  place.     But  one  stage  cannot 
properly  perform  this ;  therefore,  there  can  be  no  unity 

01  place.  Dryden  :  A  Defence  of  an  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy. 

172.  If  you  have  borrowed  and  not  repaid,  you  owe 
me  the  money :  you  have  not  borrowed  and  not  repaid ; 
then  you  do  not  owe  me  the  money.  epictetus. 

173.  Every  one  must,  of  course,  think  his  own  opin- 
ions right ;  for  if  he  thought  them  wrong,  they  would 
no  longer  be  his  opinions. 

Samuel  Bailey:  Essays  mt  the  Formation  and  Publication 

of  Opinions. 

174.  The  agreemeh  A  the  representatives  of  the 
great  European  powers  in  session  at  The  HaL,ae  (June, 
1 899),  in  favor  of  a  reduction  of  standing  armies  would 
produce  lasting  benefit  to  civilisation,  if  it  could  be 
determined  on  ;  but  as  there  is  little  likelihood  of  such 
agreement,  we  may  infer  that  no  bene  lit  to  civilisation 

WUl  ensue.  Extract  from  newspaper  leader. 

175.  For  if  scripture  interpret  itselt,  then  we  must 
apply  these  means  to  obtain  the  interpretation  of  scrip- 
ture ;  since  those  who  would  use  other  means  do  not 
allow  to  scripture  the   power    of  expounding  its  own 

meanmg.  Whitaker:  Disputations. 

176.  If  self-denial  be  the  essence  of  virtue,  then  it 
follows  that  the  man  who  is  naturally  temperate,  just, 
etc.,  is  not  virtuous  ;  but  that  in  order  to  be  virtuous. 


50 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


he  must,  in  spite  of  his  natural  indination,  wrong  his 
neighbor,  and  eat,  and  drink,  etc.,  to  excess. 

Benjamin  Franklin  :  Self-denial  not  the  essence  of  virtue^ 
Works,  Vol.  II,  p.  64. 

177.  If  that  which  is  known  may  be  overruled  by 
that  which  is  unknown,  no  being,  not  omniscient,  can 

arrive  at  certainty.  Johnson  :  Rasselas,  ch.  45. 

178.  If  beauty  in  our  own  species  was  annexed  to 
use,  men  would  be  much  more  lovely  than  women  ;  and 
strength  and  agility  would  be  considered  as  the  only 

beauties.  Burke:   The  SubHme  and  Beautiful,  ^ect.Vl. 


179.  If  man  was  created,  he  was  created  for  some 
end  ;  and  being  created  perfect,  the  end  to  which  he 
was  destined  could  not  but  be  perfect. 

Chateaubriand:  Genie  dti  Christianisme,  ch.  ^. 

180.  Were  it  Crime,  I  should  feel  Remorse.  Where 
there  is  no  Remorse,  Crime  cannot  exist.  I  am  not 
sorry ;  therefore,   I  am  innocent.     Is  the  proposition  a 

yj     fair  one  ? 

The  excellent  Doctor  admitted  that  it  was  not  to  be 

contested.  Thackkkw -.  Burlesques  ;  '^  George  de  BamwellP 

181.  If  the  accused  person  is  guilty  of  the  offence 
with  which  he  is  charged,  he  is  deeply  blamable  and 
honest  men  should  shun  his  society ;  but  since  the 
enquiry  shews  clearly  that  he  was  not  guilty,  what 
possible  reason  can  you  give  for  continuing  to  avoid  him  "i 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


51 


182.  Could  the  point  to  be  observed  in  a  chemical 
analysis  be  sharply  and  distinctly  isolated,  we  would 
rather  take  the  testimony  of  a  man  who  had  no  idea 
what  to  expect  than  of  a  man  who  knew  well  what  to 
expect ;  but  it  cannot ;  and  therefore  we  say  that  the 
evidence  of  a  chemist  is  worth  ten  times  as  much  as 
the  evidence  of  a  non-chemist. 

R.  H.  HuTTON  :    The  Incarnation  and  Principle  of  Evidence ; 
Essays,  Vol.  I,  p.  239. 

183.  Make  the  necessaries  of  life  too  expensive  for 
the  poor  to  reach  them,  and  you  will  save  their  money. 
If  they  buy  but  few  candles,  they  will  pay  but  little  tax ; 
and  if  they  buy  none,  the  tax,  as  to  them,  will  be  anni- 

nilated.  CoWPER  :  On  Pittas  proposal  to  t<fx  candles. 

184.  The  following  is  a  reply  sent  to  a  dunning 
bookseller :  I  never  ordered  the  book ;  if  I  did,  you 
didn't  send  it ;  if  you  sent  it,  I  never  got  it ;  if  I  got 
it,  I  paid  for  it ;  if  I  didn't,  I  won't. 

185.  If  the  enthymeme  is  an  imperfect  syllogism,  it 

is  plain  that  he  who  has  been  exercised  in  the  perfect    >!»%  4 
syllogism  must  be  equally  expert  in  the  imperfect  also.     '    - 

Epictetus. 

i86.  Touchstone.  —  Why,  if  thou  never  wast  at 
court,  thou  never  sawest  good  manners ;  if  thou  never 
sawest  good  manners,  then  thy  manners  must  be 
wicked  ;  and  wickedness  is  sin,  and  sin  is  damnation. 
Thou  art  in  a  parlous  state,  shepherd. 

-  -  As  You  Like  It,  III,  2. 


:■■(«.■ 


52 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


187.  As  to  Moses,  I  suppose  it  will  be  allowed  me  that 
he  could  not  have  persuaded  600,000  men  that  he  had 
brought  them  out  of  Egypt,  through  the  Red  Sea ;  fed 
them  forty  years  without  bread,  by  miraculous  manna, 
and  the  other  matters  of  fact  recorded  in  his  books,  if 
they  had  not  been  true.  Because  every  man's  senses 
that  were  then  alive  must  have  contradicted  it.  And 
therefore  he  must  have  imposed  upon  all  their  senses, 
if  he  could  have  made  them  believe  it  when  it  was  false, 
and  no  such  things  done. 

Leslie  :  A  Short  and  Easy  Method  with  a  Deist,  p.  8. 

1 88.  I  had  been  told  before  I  came  out  on  this  expe- 
dition that  if  there  were  wolves  in  the  district,  there 
would  be  abundance  of  red  deer  in  the  vicinity.  Well,  I 
have  had  three  days'  capital  shooting,  —  in  all,  five  red 
deer,  —  but  what  surprises  me  most  is  that  I  have  not 
seen  track  or  trail  of  wolf  in  all  that  time ;  and  I  cer- 
tainly expected  to,  after  killing  my  first  deer. 

Extract  from  private  letter. 

189.  Saint  Augustine  has  said :  Reason  would  never 
submit  if  it  did  not  judge  this  submission  to  be  duty. 
It  is  therefore  right  that  reason  should  submit  when  it 
judges  this  to  be  a  duty. 

D'Alembert  replies  :  If  reason  submits  to  its  own 
judgm^^.nt,  it  submits  to  itself ;  and  if  it  submits  to  itself 
alone,  this  is  no  submission  and  reason  still  rules. 

Alfred  de  Vigny:  Stello,ch.^. 

190.  If  everything  is  matter,  and  if  the  thought  within 
myself,   as  in  all  other  men,  is  only  an  effect  of  the 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


53 


arrangement  of  particles  of  matter,  who  has  intro- 
duced into  the  world  a  totally  different  idea  from  that  of 
material  things  ?  Has  matter  in  its  very  depths  any  idea 
so  pure,  simple,  and  immaterial  as  that  of  spirit  ?  How 
can  it  be  the  principle  of  that  which  denies  and  excludes 
matter  from  its  own  existence  ?  How  can  matter  be  what 
thinks  in  man ;  that  is,  the  very  source  of  his  conviction 

that  he  is  not  matter?  la  Bruyere:  Des  Esprits-Torts. 

191.  People  really  do  not  know  what  they  mean  by 
complaining  that  vice  is  happy  and  virtue  unhappy  in 
this  world.  ...  It  is  manifestly  proved  that  ills  of  every 
sort  rain  down  on  the  human  race  like  bullets  on  an 
army,  without  any  distinction  of  persons.  Now,  if  the 
good  man  does  not  suffer  because  he  is  good,  and  if  the 
wicked  does  not  prosper  because  he  is  wicked,  the  objec- 
tion disappears  and  common  sense  has  triumphed. 

Joseph  de  Maistre  :  Les  Soirees  de  Saint  Petersbourg. 

192.  Syllogisms  consist  of  propositions,  propositions 
of  words,  and  words  are  the  signs  of  notions  ;  therefore, 
if  our  notions,  the  basis  of  all,  are  confined  and  over- 
hastily  taken  from  things,  nothing  that  is  built  on  them 


can  be  firm. 


B\con:  Novum  Organum. 


193.  If  lawyers  can  find  no  reason  for  a  law,  they 
presume  that  it  once  had  a  good  one ;  and  because  it 
once  had  a  good  one,  it  has  so  still.  Therefore,  it  ought 
to  be  retained.  bentham. 

194.  If  God  exists.  He  possesses  life  ;  if  He  has  life, 
He  has  senses ;  if  He  has  senses,  He  is  subject  to  cor- 


54 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


ruption.     If  He  has  no  body,  He  has  no  soul,  and  is 
therefore  incapable  of  action ;   and  if  He  possesses  a 

body,  He  is  perishable.  Montaigne. 

195.  *'  If  God  exists,  He  is  perfect ;  if  He  is  perfect, 
He  is  wise,  almighty,  just ;  if  He  is  just  and  almighty, 
my  soul  is  immortal ;  if  my  soul  is  immortal,  thirty  years 
of  life  are  nothing  to  me,  and  these  years,  with  all  that 
happens  in  them,  may  be  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  universe."  If  the  first  proposition  is  admitted, 
the  rest  can  never  be  shaken  ;  if  it  be  denied,  there  is 
no  use  in  disputing  about  its  consequences. 

Edward  Caird  :  Essay  on  Rousseau. 

196.  The  only  evil  of  hunger  is  that  it  produces  first 
pain,  then  sickness,  and  finally  death.  If  it  did  not  pro- 
duce these,  it  would  be  no  calamity.  If  these  are  not 
evils,  it  is  no  calamity.  We  will  propose  a  very  plain 
dilemma :  either  physical  pain  is  an  evil,  or  it  is  not  an 
evil.  If  it  is  an  evil,  then  there  is  necessary  evil  in  the 
universe ;  if  it  is  not,  why  should  the  poor  be  delivered 

from  it  }  MAC AULAV  :  Southey  's  Colloquies. 

197.  If  an  exile  or  banished  man  is  driven  from  his 
country  for  any  crime,  it  does  not  belong  to  the  nation 
in  which  he  has  taken  refuge  to  punish  him  for  a  fault 
committed  in  a  foreign  country.  For  nature  gives  to 
mankind  and  to  nations  the  right  of  punishing  only  for 
their  defence  and  safety  ;  whence  it  follows  that  he  can 
only  be  punished  by  those  whom  he  has  offended.  But 
this  reason  shows  that  if  the  justice  of  each  nation  ought 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


55 


i 


in  general  to  be  confined  to  the  punishment  of  crimes 
committed  within  its  own  territories,  we  ought  to  except 
from  this  rule  the  villains  who,  by  the  quality  and  fre- 
quency of  their  crimes,  violate  all  public  security,  and 
declare  themselves  the  enemies  of  the  human  race. 
Poisoners,  assassins,  and- incendiaries  by  profession,  may 
be  exterminated  wherever  they  are  seized ;  for  they 
attack  and  injure  all  nations  by  trampling  under  foot 
the  foundations  of  the  common  safety. 

Burke  :  On  the  Policy  of  the  Allies  (Appendix). 

198.  If  our  first  principles  are  intuitively  certain,  and  if 
we  reason  from  them  consequentially,  our  conclusions  will 
be  demonstratively  certain  ;  but  if  our  principles  be  only 
intuitively  probable,  our  conclusions  will  be  only  demon- 
stratively probable.  In  mathematics,  the  first  principles 
from  which  we  reason  are  a  set  of  axioms  which  are  not 
only  intuitively  certain,  but  of  which  we  find  it  impos- 
sible to  conceive  the  contraries  ^  to  be  true  ;  and  hence 
the  peculiar  evidence  which  belongs  to  all  the  conclusions 
that  follow  from  these  principles  as  necessary  conse- 
quences. Quoted  in  the  Works  of  Dtigald  Stewart,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  30. 

199.  If  no  man  has  a  right  to  political  power,  then 
neither  Jew  nor  Gentile  has  such  a  right.  The  whole 
foundation  of  government  is  taken  away.  But  if  govern- 
ment be  taken  away,  the  property  and  the  persons  of 
men  are  insecure  ;  and  it  is  acknowledged  that  men  have 
a  right  to  their  property  and  to  personal  security.  If  it 
be  right  that  the  property  of  men  should  be  protected, 

;  1  Contradictories  would  be  the  strictly  logical  term. 


i- 


S6 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


and  if  this  can  only  be  clone  by  means  of  government, 
then  it  must  be  right  that  government  should  exist. 
Now  there  cannot  be  government  unless  some  person  or 
persons  possess  political  power.  Therefore,  it  is  right 
that  some  person  or  persons  should  possess  political 
power.  That  is  to  say,  some  person  or  persons  must 
have  a  right  to  political  power. 

Macaulay  :  Essay  on  the  Civil  Disabilities  of  the  Jews. 

200.  If  our  life  was  perfect,  we  should  know  nothing 
but  pleasure.  As  it  is  imperfect,  we  have  to  know  both 
pleasure  and  pain  ;  now,  it  is  from  the  experience  of 
these  two  contraries  that  we  get  the  idea  of  good  and 
evil.  But  as  pleasure  and  pain  do  not  come  to  all 
men  in  the  same  way,  we  attach  the  idea  of  good  and 
evil  to  various  objects,  each  according  to  his  experience, 
his  passions,  his  opinions,  etc.  .    ' 

Vauvenargues  :  Dc  V Esprit  Htitnain,  XXII. 

201.  I  infer  thus.  If  it  is  true  that  painting  employs 
in  its  imitations  quite  different  media  or  signs  from 
poetry,  the  former  employing  shapes  and  colors  in  space, 
the  latter  articulate  tones  in  time  ;  if  it  is  unquestion- 
able that  the  signs  must  have  a  convenient  relation 
to  the  thing  signified,  then  coexisting  signs  can  only 
express  objects  which  coexist,  or  whose  parts  coexist, 
and  successive  signs  can  only  express  objects  which  are 
successive,  or  whose  parts  are  successive. 

Objects  which  coexist,  or  whose  parts  coexist,  are 
called  bodies.  Consequently  bodies  with  their  visible 
qualities  are  the  proper  objects  of  painting. 


x< 


ILLUSTKATJONS   OF  LOGIC. 


57 


\ 


^t  '^' 


Objects  which  are  in  succession,  or  whose  parts  are 
in  succession,  are  called  actions.  Consequently  actions 
are  the  proper  objects  of  poetry. 

Lessing  :  Laoi'oon,  Sect.  XVI  (transl.  by  E.  Frothingham). 

202.  The  empirical  argument  (of  pessimism)  may  be 
shortly  stated  in  the  form  of  a  disjunctive  syllogism. 

If  happiness  be  attainable  at  all,  it  must  be  attainable 
either  in  life  or  earth  as  it  exists  at  present,  or,  in  a 
transcendental  life  after  death  ;  or  (disregarding  existing 
individuals)  in  a  more  highly  developed  state  of  society 
on  earth  at  some  future  time.  But  it  is  not  attainable 
in  any  of  these  ways.     Therefore  it  is  not  attainable  at 

&il»  J.  W.  Barlow:   T/ie  UUimatum  of  Pessimism,  p.  i^. 

203.  Men  believe  either  what  is  actual  fact  or  what  is 
probable  ;  this  is  believed  ;  this,  therefore,  is  either  a  fact 
or  probable  ;  now  it  is  not  probable,  therefore  it  is  a  fact. 

Aristotle:  ^//^i^tfr^V  (Bohn's  transl.). 

204.  What  one  can  plead,  the  rest  can  plead  as  well ; 
For  amongst  equals  lies  no  last  appeal, 

And  all  confess  themselves  are  fallible. 
Now,  since  you  grant  some  necessary  guide, 
All  who  can  err  are  justly  laid  aside. 
Because  a  trust  so  sacred  to  confer 
Shews  want  of  such  a  sure  interpreter ; 
And  how  can  he  be  needful  who  can  err  ? 
u-;^^^;  5^  Then,  granting  that  unerring  guide  we  want, 
'^  That  such  there  is  you  stand  obliged  to  grant ; 


\ 


* 


* 


.--..4 


.^y>^ 


%>!P 


r^i'^ 


iy 


Il 


58  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 

It  then  remains  that  Church  can  only  be 
The  guide,  which  owns  unfaiHng  certainty  ; 
Or  else  you  slip  your  hold,  and  change  your  side, 
■        Relapsing  from  a  necessary  guide. 

•  Dryden:  The  Hind  and  the  Panther,  Vi.\\,^T^-J^'&6. 

205.  That  the  hour  of  dissolution  cannot  possibly  be 
far  distant  from  an  old  man  is  most  undoubtedly  certain ; 
but  unhappy  indeed  must  he  be,  if  in  so  long  a  course 
of  years  he  has  yet  to  learn  that  there  is  nothing  in 
that  circumstance  which  can  remarkably  alarm  his  fears : 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  an  event  either  utterly  to  be  dis- 
regarded, if  it  extinguish  the  soul's  existence ;  or  much 
to  be  wished,  if  it  convey  her  to  some  region  where  she 
shall  continue  to  exist  forever.  One  of  these  two  con- 
sequences must  necessarily  ensue  the  disunion  of  the 
soul  and  body ;  there  is  no  other  possible  alternative. 
What  then  have  I  to  fear,  if  after  death  I  shall  either 
not  be  miserable,  or  shall  certainly  be  happy } 

Cicero  :  De  Senectiite,  XIX  (Melmoth's  transl.). 

206.  Philosophers  are  always  giving  out  the  following 
dilemma  in  order  to  console  us  in  our  mortal  condition : — 

The  soul  is  either  mortal  or  immortal. 
If  it  is  mortal,  it  will  suffer  no  pain. 
If  immortal,  it  will  go  on  improving. 

They  never  handle  the  other  branch,  "What  if  it 
should  become  worse } "  and  they  leave  to  poets  the 
threats  of  future  punishment,  thus  making  matters  very 

ea;  y  for  themselves.  Montaigne:  Essais,  II,  12. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


59 


207.  Dr.  Edmunds  had  maintained  that  no  amount 
of  evidence  would  make  him  beheve  in  certain  obvious 
absurdities,  say  the  lions  in  Trafalgar  Square  drink- 
ing out  of  the  fountains.  Mr.  Wallace  replied :  *  The 
asserted  fact  is  either  possible  or  not  possible.  If  possi- 
ble, such  evidence  as  we  have  been  considering  would 
prove  it ;  if  not  possible,  such  evidence  could  not  exist.' 
No  such  evidence  exists  for  the  lions  ;  for  the  phe- 
nomena of  so-called  spiritualism,  we  have  consentient 
testimony  in  every  land,  period,  and  stage  of  culture. 
That  certainly  makes  a  difference,  whatever  the  weight 
and  value  of  the  difference  may  be. 

Andrew  Lang  :  Cock  Lane  and  Common-Sense^  p.  21,  note. 

208.  The  essence  of  the  Charter  is  universal  suf- 
frage. If  you  withhold  that,  it  matters  not  very  much 
what  else  you  grant.  If  you  grant  that,  it  matters  not 
at  all  what  else  you  withhold.     If  you  grant  that,  the 

country  is  lost.  U\cm\.\\  :   The  People's  Charter. 

209.  Thomas  Anglus,  when  reproached  for  the 
obscurity  of  his  writings,  replied  :  — 

Either  the  learned  understand  me,  or  they  do  not. 

If  they  understand  me,  and  find  me  in  error,  it  is  an 
easy  matter  for  them  to  refute  me. 

If  they  do  not  understand  me,  it  is  very  unreasonable 
of  them  to  cry  out  against  my  teachings. 

Disraeli  :  Curiosities  of  Literature. 

210.  No  honest  man  will  plead  for  an  accused  person  ; 
for  the  accused   is  either  guilty  or  innocent.     If  the 


1/ 


I. 


Rt   I 


60 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


ii; 


i  il 


if 


m 


accused  is  guilty,  he  ought  not  to  be  defended  ;  and  if 
he  is  innocent,  it  must  be  apparent  to  his  judges. 

211.  Either  the  education  of  the  poor  will  be  general, 
or  it  will  not.  If  it  is  not,  and  only  a  few  are  educated, 
then  it  is  a  distinction,  and  those  few  may  be  proud. 

If  it  be  general,  it  ceases  to  be  a  distinction  and  at 
the  same  time  a  ground  of  pride.        johnson  :  in  BoswM. 

212.  A  Jacobite,  Sir,  believes  in  the  divine  right  of 
kings.  He  that  believes  in  the  divine  right  of  kings 
believes  in  a  divinity.  A  Jacobite  believes  in  the  divine 
right  of  Bishops.  He  that  believes  in  the  divine  right 
of  Bishops  believes  in  the  divine  authority  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Therefore,  Sir,  a  Jacobite  is  neither  an 
Atheist  nor  a  Deist.  That  cannot  be  said  of  a  Whig ; 
for  Whiggism  is  a  negation  of  all  principle. 

Johnson  :  in  Boswell. 

213.  If  canals  could  be  profitably  opened,  it  would 
not  only  be  superfluous  and  absurd,  but  positively  per- 
nicious for  government  to  undertake  them  ;  for  in  this 
case  private  interests  would  accomplish  the  object  far 
more  economically.  If  they  could  not  be  opened  with  a 
profit,  it  would  be  pernicious  to  force  capital  into  an 
unproductive  channel.  In  either  case,  therefore,  nothing 
but  mischief  can  result  from  the  interference  of  govern- 
ment. 

ToRRENS  :  Against  the  Construction  of  Public  Works  by  Government. 

214.  Do  the  slaves  diminish  in  numbers  .'*  It  can  be 
nothing  but   ill-treatment   that   causes   the  diminution. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


6l 


This  ill-treatment  the  abolition  must  and  will  restrain. 
In  this  case,  therefore,  we  ought  to  vote  for  the  abolition. 
On  the  other  hand,  do  you  choose  to  say  that  the  slaves 
clearly  increase  in  numbers  }  Then  you  want  no  impor- 
tations, and  in  this  case  also  you  may  safely  vote  for 
the  abolition.  Or,  if  you  choose  to  say,  as  the  third  and 
only  other  case  which  can  be  put,  and  which  perhaps  is 
the  nearest  to  the  truth,  that  the  population  is  nearly 
stationary,  and  the  treatment  neither  so  bad  nor  so  good 
as  it  might  be ;  then  surely,  sir,  it  will  not  be  denied 
that  this  of  all  others  is,  on  each  of  the  two  grounds,  the 
proper  period  for  stopping  further  supplies  :  for  your 
population,  which  you  own  is  already  stationary,  will 
thus  be  made  undoubtedly  to  increase  from  the  births, 
and  the  good  treatment  of  your  present  slaves,  which 
I  am  now  supposing  is  but  very  moderate,  will  be  neces- 
sarily improved  also  by  the  same  measure  of  abolition. 
I  say,  therefore,  that  these  propositions,  contradictory 
as  they  may  be  represented,  are  in  truth  not  at  all  incon- 
sistent, but  even  come  in  aid  of  each  other,  and  lead  to 
a  conclusion  that  is  decisive. 

Pitt:  Aboliiiott  of  the  Slave  Trade,  1792. 

215.  "/«  rcriim  naturd  (said  Don  Ferrante),  there 
are  but  two  genera  of  things  :  substances  and  accidents  ; 
and  if  I  prove  that  the  plague  cannot  be  either  the  one 
or  the  other,  I  shall  have  proved  that  it  has  no  existence, 
and  is  a  chimera.  Thus  :  substances  are  either  spiritual 
or  material.  That  the  plague  is  a  spiritual  substance  is 
an  absurdity  which  no  one  would  maintain  ;  therefore, 
no  need  of  discussing  it.     Material  substances  are  either 


'I 

Hi'' 

ill 


62 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


simple  or  compound.  Now,  that  the  plague  is  not  a 
simple  substance  is  demonstrable  in  four  words.  It  is 
not  an  aerial  substance ;  for,  if  it  were  so,  it  would,  instead 
of  passing  from  one  body  to  another,  immediately  fly  to 
its  own  sphere.  It  is  not  watery,  for  it  would  moisten, 
and  would  dry  in  the  wind.  It  is  not  fiery,  for  it  would 
burn.  It  is  not  earthy,  for  it  would  be  visible.  Neither 
is  it  a  compound  substance  ;  for  it  would  have  to  be 
sensible  to  sight  or  touch ;  and  who  has  ever  seen  the 
plague }  We  must  go  on  to  see  whether  it  can  be  an 
accident.  Worse  and  worse.  These  doctors  tell  us  that 
it  is  transmitted  from  one  body  to  another ;  and  this  is 
their  Achilles,  their  pretext  for  prescriptions  without 
foundation.  Now,  supposing  it  to  be  an  accident,  it 
v.ould  become  a  transmitted  accident,  two  words  which 
are  irreconcilable  (incompatible),  for  nothing  in  all  phi- 
losophy is  clearer  than  this,  namely,  that  an  accident 
cannot  pass  from  one  subject  to  another.  And  if,  in 
order  to  avoid  this  Scylla,  they  call  it  a  produced  acci- 
dent, then  they  fall  into  Charybdis  ;  for  if  it  is  produced, 
it  is  not  communicated,  does  not  spread,  as  they  chatter- 
ingly  declare.  With  these  principles,  what  is  the  use  of 
talking  about  pimples,  exanthemata,  carbuncles  .  .  . .? " 

''  All  trifles  and  nonsense,"  said  one. 

"  No,  no,"  resumed  Don  Ferrante,  "  I  don't  say  that : 
science  is  science  :  only  one  should  know  how  to  apply  it. 
Exanthemata,  carbuncles,  glandular  swellings, . . .  etc.,  are 
all  respectable  words  with  their  very  proper  and  sound 
meaning ;  but  I  say  that  they  have  nothing  whatever  to 

do  with  the  question."  Manzoni  :  I  Promcssi  Sposi,  ch.  n. 


• 


JLLUSTKATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


63 


216.  An  abundant  stream  divides  two  limits  of  (me 
property,  .  .  .  and  over  this  stream  stood  a  bridge ;  and 
at  the  head  of  it  a  gallows,  over  which  were  appointed 
four  judges  to  decide  according  to  the  law  established 
by  the  lord  of  the  stream,  the  bridge,  and  the  territory. 
The  law  ran  in  this  wise :  "  If  any  one  shall  pass  over 
this  bridge  from  one  side  to  the  other,  he  must  first 
swear  as  to  whence  he  comes  and  on  what  business  he 
is  bound,  and  if  he  swear  truly  he  must  be  allowed  to 
go  ;  but  if  he  swear  falsely  he  shall  on  that  account  die 
by  hanging  on  the  gallows  which  is  there ;  and  that 
without  remission  whatever."  This  law  and  its  stem 
conditions  being  known,  many  went  over ;  and  as  soon 
as  it  was  perceived  that  they  swore  truly,  the  judges 
allowed  them  to  pass  freely.  It  happened,  however, 
that  on  swearing  one  man,  he  took  the  oath  and  declared 
that  he  was  going  to  die  on  that  gallows,  and  that  he 
had  no  other  business.  The  judges  consulted  the  ten  -s 
of  the  oath,  and  said  :  "  If  we  allow  that  man  to  go 
free,  he  has  sworn  falsely,  and  according  to  the  law  he 
ought  to  die  ;  and  if  we  hang  him,  the  oath  that  he  was 
going  to  hang  on  that  gallows  was  true,  and  according 
to  the  same  law  he  ought  to  be  free."  ..."  I  then  say," 
replied  Sancho,  "  that  of  that  man  the  part  that  told  the 
truth  should  go  free,  and  the  part  that  spake  false  shall 
be  hanged  ;  and  thus  the  condition  of  going  over  shall 
be  fulfilled  to  the  letter."  "  Then,  Sir  Governor,"  replied 
the  petitioner,  ''  it  will  be  necessary  to  divide  the  man 
into  parts,  —  the  lying  and  the  truthful,  —  and  if  he  is 
divided,  he  will  surely  die."  .  .  .    Sancho  replied  :*"  If  the 


1 11 


II 


''(i 


64 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


reasons  are  equally  good  for  hanging  and  for  freeing  the 
man,  let  him  go,  for  it  is  always  more  blessed  to  do  good 
than  to  do  evil,  .  .  .  and  my  master  Don  Quixote  gave 
me  this  precept :  When  justice  hangs  in  the  balance,  it 
is  best  to  take  the  side  of  mercy." 

Cervantes:  Don  Quixote^  Pt.  II,  ch.  51. 

217.  A  man  cannot  lose  either  the  past  or  the  future  ; 
for  what  a  man  has  not,  how  can  any  man  take  this  from 

"irn  .  Marcus  Aurelius. 

218.  It  has  been  argued  that  there  can  be  no  real 
distinction  between  right  and  wrong,  for  whatever  is,  is 
right,  and  wrong  certainly  is. 

219.  A.  You  admitted  but  a  moment  ago  that  two 
negatives  make  an  affirmative,  did  you  not  t  Thus, 
when  you  say,  **not  involuntary,"  you  really  mean 
voluntary. 

B.     Yes,  this  seems  to  me  indisputable. 
A.     In  that  case,  every  time  a  man  says  "  No,  no," 
he  means  '*  Yes." 

:i20.  Solomon  says  that  a  backbiter  separates  between 
chief  friends,  and  so  does  the  winter. 

CoWPER :  Correspondence. 


: 


221.    Words  are  but  wind;   and  learning  is  nothing 
but  words  ;  ergOy  learning  is  nothing  but  wind. 

Swift:  yf  Ta/t' c7/a  r«^,  Sec.  VIII. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


65 


222.  On  the  strength  of  the  two  following  dicta  of 
Carlyle,  a  fallacy  was  heard  the  other  day  to  be  com- 
mitted ;  what  was  it  ? 

Perfect  ignorance  is  quiet. 
Perfect  knowledge  is  quiet. 

And  since  the  same  philosopher  declares  that  happy 
men,  and  also  wise  men,  are  full  of  the  present,  it  has 
in  similar  fashion  been  held  that  the  wise  are  happy 

223.  Apology  for  a  counterfeiter :  — 

Why  should  a  man  be  hanged  for  making  money, 
when  every  one  complains  of  the  want  of  it } 

The  Rambler, 'iio.  idi. 

224.  If  the  golden  age  is  passed,  it  was  not  genuine. 
Gold  cannot  rust  or  decay ;  it  comes  out  of  all  admix- 
tures, and  all  decompositions,  pure  and  indestructible. 

A.  W.  VON  SCHLEGEL. 

225.  Although  ''absence  makes  the  heart  grow 
fonder,"  if  we  find  that  we  have  not  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  attendance  marks  at  college,  we  do  not  expect 
to  be  greeted  very  fondly  when  we  present  ourselves  for 

exammation .  Studen*  's  illustration  of  «  ambiguous  middle.'' 

226.  The  real  tr^ith  of  the  matter  is,  that  the  water 
along  the  Posilipo  shore  is  too  pure  and  too  cold  for 
them  ;  they  prefer  it  with  the  chill  off,  and  think  that 
the  admixture  of  a  little  sewage  makes  it  more  stimulat- 
ing and  strengthening.      Liquid   manure   is    good    for 


66 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


vegetables :  all  flesh  is  grass,  and  man  as  the  flower  of 
the  field :    therefore  liquid  manure  is  good  for  human 

bemgS.  vv_  j_  a.  Stainer-.  DoUe  NapoH,^.  139. 

227.  Manes.  —  I  will  prove  that  my  bodie  was  immor- 
tall ;  because  it  was  in  prison. 

Gran.  —  As  how? 

Manes.  —  Did  your  masters  never  teach  you  that  the 
soule  was  immortall  ? 

Gran.  —  Yes. 

Manes.  —  And  the  bodie  is  the  prison  of  the  soule. 

Gran.  —  True. 

Manes.  —  Why  then,  thus  to  make  my  bodie  immor- 
tall,  I  put  it  in  prison.  John  Lilly  :  Campaspe,  Act  I,  Sc.  2. 


228.  Soc.  —  Truth  and  sincerity  are  very  precious 
things,  are  they  not } 

Ale.  —  Yes,  truly,  I  think  of  all  things  the  most 
precious. 

Soc.  —  And  do  we  not  generally  keep  our  most 
precious  gifts  for  our  friends  alone  .•* 

Ale. —  No  doubt  we  do  so. 

Soc.  —  You  will  not  deny,  then,  that  truth  and  sin- 
cerity should  be  given  to  our  friends } 

Ale.  —  Certainly,  we  ought  to  give  them  to  those  we 
love. 

Soc.  —  Ought  we  not  also  to  deny  them  to  our 
enemies  .<* 

Ale.  —  It  certaiiily  seems  so,  from  the  argument ;  but 
I  like  not  this  conclusion. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


n 


229.  Simo.  —  Here  is  what  I  remember  to  have 
heard  from  some  sage :  "  An  art  is  a  set  of  rules  based 
on  perceptions  carefully  and  consistently  trained  to 
serve  some  good  and  useful  end  —  some  end  that 
belongs  to  life." 

Tychiades.  —  Your  memory  has  not  failed  you  as  far 
as  that  authority  goes. 

Simo.  —  Well,  if  dining  out  includes  all  these  points, 
it  is  an  art,  and  nothing  else,  is  it  not  ? 

Tychiades.  —  Undoubtedly,  in  that  case,  it  is  an  art. 

Luc  I  AN  :  The  Parasite  (transl.  by  Irwin). 

230.  If  a  personal  interpretation  of  the  book  of 
Revelation  is  permissible,  how  can  it  be  denied  in  the 
case  of  the  book  of  Nature .'' 

Draper  :  History  of  the  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Scie:nce,  p.  363. 

231.  Dryden  authorizes  the  conceit  that  medicine 
can  never  be  useful  or  requisite,  because  — 

"  God  never  made  his  works  for  man  to  mend." 

DeQuincey:  Casuistry,  nota  6. 

232.  Is  not  a  journeyman  barber  as  good  as  a  jour- 
neyman baker }  The  only  difference  is,  the  baker  uses 
flour  for  the  belly,  and  the  barber  uses  it  for  the  head ; 
and  as  the  head  is  a  more  noble  member  than  the  belly, 
so  is  a  barber  more  noble  than  a  baker  ;  for  what  is  the 

belly  without  the  head  }      Smollett  :  RoderieJ!;  Random,  ch.  17. 

233.  The  Bible  says  the  Jews  were  a  nation  favored 
by  God  ;  but  I,  who  am  a  freethinker,  say  that  cannot 
be,  because  the  Jews  lived  in  a  corner  of  the  earth,  and 


68 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


freethinking  makes  it  plain  that  those  who  live  in  comers 
cannot  be  favorites  of  God.  The  New  Testament  all 
along  asserts  the  truth  of  Christianity,  but  freethinking 
denies  it,  because  Christianity  was  communicated  but  to 
few,  and  whatever  is  communicated  but  to  few  cannot 
be  true  ;  for  that  is  like  whispering,  and  the  proverb 
says  that  there  is  no  whispering  without  lying. 

234.  How  many  languages  are  there  which  you  do 
not  understand  —  the  Punic,  Spanish,  Gallic,  Egyptian, 
etc.  .'*  With  regard  .  to  all  these,  you  are  as  if  yoU  were 
deaf,  yet  you  are  indifferent  about  the  matter.  Is  it 
then  so  great  a  misfortune  to  be  deaf  to  one  language 

more  .       Ciccro  's  stoical  consolation  for  deafness  in  Tusc,  Quest. ^  Bk.  V. 

Qtcoted  by  Hmne  in  "  The  Sceptic P 

235.  Goodness  in  action  is  like  unto  straightness  ; 
wherefore  that  which  is  done  well  we  term  7'iglit.  For 
as  the  straight  way  is  most  acceptable  to  him  that 
travelleth,  because  by  it  he  cometh  soonest  to  his 
journey's  end  ;  so  in  action,  that  which  doth  lie  the 
evenest  between  us  and  the  end  we  desire  must  needs 
be  the  fittest  for  our  use. 

Hooker  :  Ecclcsiasthal  Polity^  Bk,  I,  ch.  8,  2. 

236.  "All  flesh  is  grass,"  is  not  only  metaphorically, 
but  literally  true ;  for  all  those  creatures  we  behold  are 
but  the  herbs  of  the  field,  digested  into  flesh  in  them, 
or  more  remotely  carnified  in  ourselves.  Nay,  further, 
we  are  what  we  all  abhor,  anthropophagi,  and  cannibals, 
devourers  not  only  of  men,  but  of  ourselves;  and  that 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


69 


not  in  an  allegory  but  a  positive  truth :  for  all  this  mass 
of  flesh  which  we  behold,  came  in  at  our  mouths :  this 
frame  we  look  upon,  hath  been  upon  our  trenchers  ;  in 
brief  we  have  devoured  ourselves. 

Sir  Thomas  Browne  :  Religio  Medici,  Sect,  XXXVII. 

237.  Why  does  the  murderer  deserve  death?  The 
answer  will  be,  because  he  has  deliberately  taken  human 
life.  Then,  of  course,  the  same  guilt  is  perpetrated, 
and  the  same  penalty  incurred,  when  the  law  deliberately 
takes  human  life  in  return.  For  wherein  is  there  a 
difference  >  Both  acts  of  homicide  are  perpetrated  wil- 
fully ;  and  to  our  mind  the  homicide  of  the  law  is  worse 
than  the  homicide  of  the  assassin,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
committed  in  cool  blood,  and  in  the  sight  of  day. 

Eclectic  Review,  July,  1849. 

238.  There  existed,  fifty  years  ago,  a  most  irrational 
prejudice,  very  strongly  rooted  in  the  social  conventions 
of  the  time,  about  masculine  and  feminine- accomplish- 
ments. .  .  .  This  illogical  prejudice  was  based  on  a  bad 
syllogism  of  this  kind  :  — 

Girls  speak  French,  and  learn  music  and  drawing. 
Benjamin  speaks  French,  and  learns  music  and  draw- 
ing. 

Benjamin  is  a  girl. 

Hamerton:   The  Intellcciual  Life,  ^Tp.  24^1,  24^2. 

239.  Enthydemus  .  .  .  began  nearly  as  follows  :  O 
Cleinias,  are  those  who  learn  the  wise  or  the  ignorant } 
.  .  .  Cleinias  answered  that  those  who  learned  were  the 


/ 


;  I 


wise. 


70 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


Enthydemiis  proceeded  :  There  are  those  whom  you 
call  teachers,  are  there  not  ? 

The  boy  assented. 

And  they  are  the  teachers  of  those  who  learn  ;  the 
grammar  master  and  the  lyre  master  used  to  teach  you 
and  other  boys  ;  and  you  were  the  learners  ? 

Yes. 

And  when  you  were  learners  }  i  did  not  as  yet  know 
the  things  which  you  were  learning } 

No,  he  said. 

And  were  you  wise  then  1 

No,  indeed,  he  said. 

But  if  you  were  not  wise  you  were  unlearned. 

Certainly. 

You  then,  learning  what  you  did  not  know,  were 
unlearned  when  you  were  learning } 

The  youth  nodded  assent. 

Then  the  unlearned  learn,  and  not  the  wise,  Cleinias, 
as  you  imagine.  ... 

Then  before  the  youth  had  well  time  to  recover, 
Dionysodorus  took  him  in  hand  and  said  :  Yes,  Cleinias  ; 
and  when  the  grammar  master  dictated  to  you,  were 
they  the  wise  boys  or  the  unlearned  who  learned  the 
dictation } 

The  wise,  replied  Cleinias. 

Then  after  all  the  wise  are  the  learners  and  not  the 
unlearned;  and  your  last  answer  to   Enthydemus  was 

wrong.  Plato  :  Enthydemus^  p.  276. 

240.  The  best  of  all  taxes  are  taxes  on  consumption 
and  taxes  on  the  transfer  of  property  :  now  all  the  latter 


y 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


71 


and  many  of  the  former  are  levied  by  stamps ;  stamp 
duties  therefore  are  good  taxes,  and  taxes  on  justice  are 
all  stamp  duties  ;  therefore  taxes  on  justice  are  good 

taxes.      Bentham  :  Protest  against  Law  7'a:r^J,  summarized  by  Jevons. 


241.  This  particular  problem,  which  (as  you  see) 
offers  some  difficulties,  was  presented  to  no  less  than 
eight  classes  in  other  schools,  before  this  one ;  and  it 
was  found  on  every  occasion  that  every  pupil  who  solved 
it  was  above  the  average  in  general  ability.  Now,  in 
your  class  not  a  single  pupil  hab  succeeded  in  working 
it ;  and  the  obvious  inference  is  that  you  must  have 
unusually  poor  material  to  deal  with. 

Letter  of  a  school  inspector  to  a  teacher, 

242.  He  (Aristotle)  proves  the  ivorld  to  be  perfect, 
because  it  consists  of  bodies ;  and  that  bodies  are  so, 
because  they  consist  of  a  triple  dimension;  and  that  a 
triple  dimension  is  perfect,  because  three  are  all;  and 
that  three  are  all,  because  when  't  is  but  one  or  two,  we 
can't  say  all,  but  when  't  is  three,  wc  may.  Is  not  this 
an  absolute  demoftstratio7i  ?  We  can  say  all  at  the 
number  three:  therefore  the  world  is  perfect. 

Glanvill:  Scepsis  Scienlifica,  ch.  19. 

243.  Why  has  not  Man  a  microscopic  eye } 
For  this  plain  reason,  Man  is  not  a  Fly. 

Pope  :  Essay  on  Man,  1, 193,  194. 

244.  I  believe  that  any  disturbance  of  the  repose  of 
the  world  is  very  remote,  because  it  is  our  undeniable 


72 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


i. 


II 


right  and  an  unquestionable  duty  to  be  prepared  with 
the  means  of  defence,  should  such  an  event  occur. 

Brougham  :  Quoted  in  Life  of  George  Eliot. 

245.  Those  who  cannot  be  charming  are  not  great, 
and  you  prove  this,   for  you  are  charming. 

Victor  Hugo  to  George  Sand  (1862) 

246.  The  martyrdom  of  men  in  support  of  a  dogma, 
so  far  from  proving  its  truth,  proves  rather  its  doubt- 
fulness, no  geometer  having  thought  it  ever  worth 
his  while  to  die  in  order  to  establish  any  mathematical 
proposition,  truth  needing  no  such  sacrifices,  which  are 
actually  unserviceable  and  useless  to  it,  since  it  is  able 
spontaneously  to  force  its  own  way. 

Draper  :   The  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe^  Vol.  II,  pp.  197,  198. 

247.  Ambiguities  in  Latin,  which  possesses  no  article, 
are  much  more  numerous  than  in  German ;  as,  for 
example,  in  the  well-known  example  in  which  a  drunken 
student  says  that  he  has  not  drunk  '  vinum,'  because  he 
avails  himself  of  the  rescrvatio  mcntalis  of  understand- 
ing by  *  vinum  '  wine  in  its  full  extent,  that  is,  all  the 
wine  that  exists  ;  and  the  wine  that  exists  in  India,  or 
even  in  his  neighbor's  glass,  he  has,  of  course,  not  drunk. 

Lange:  History  of  Materialism^  Vol.  I,  p.  212. 

248.  Nature  teaches  us  of  two  evils  to  choose  the 
least :  and  to  bear  with  oppression  as  long  as  there  is  a 
necessity  of  so  doing ;  and  you  will  infer  from  hence 
that  tyrants  have  some  right  by  the  law  of  nature  to 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


73 


oppress  their  subjects,  and  go  unpunished,  because,  as 
circumstances  may  fall  out,  it  may  sometimes  be  a  less 
mischief  to  bear  with  them  than  to  remove  them. 

Milton  :  A  Defence  of  the  People  of  England. 

249.  When  we  are  ill  of  a  bodily  disease,  we  consult 
a  physician  in  order  to  learn  the  nature  of  the  malady, 
and  to  be  cured  of  it  ;  consequently,  when  we  are  in 
moral  perplexity,  or  when  we  have  been  guilty  of  some 
wrong  (which  is  moral  disease),  we  ought  to  consult  a 
healer  of  consciences  ;  that  is,  a  moral  adviser. 

250.  To  the  philosopher  the  State  is  a  human  organ- 
ism, a  human  person  ;  but  if  so,  the  human  spirit  which 
lives  in  it  must  also  have  a  human  body,  for  spirit  and 
body  belong  to  one  another,  and  between  them  make 
up  the  person.  In  a  body  which  is  not  organized  and 
human  the  spirit  of  man  cannot  truly  live.  The  body 
politic  must  therefore  imitate  the  body  natural  of  man. 
The  perfect   State   is,  as   it  were,  the  visible  body  of 

Humanity.  Bluntschli  :   The  Theory  of  the  State,  Bk.  I,  ch.  2. 


251.  If  a  general  is  permitted  to  lead  whole  regiments 
to  slaughter  for  the  honour  of  the  country,  it  is  mere 
prejudice  which  forbids  a  great  savant  to  sacrifice  a  few 
existences  for  a  magnificent  discovery,  such  as  that  of 
the  virus  of  rabies  or  of  diphtheria.  .  .  .  Why  should  we 
not  admit  the  existence  of  other  battlefields  than  those 
on  which  death  is  encountered  for  the  caprice  of  a  ruler 
or  the  aggrandisement  of  a  country  .-*...     Why  should 


74 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


.ii 


Mi 


lii 


there  not  be  glorious  engagements  in  which  defeat  would 
be  inflicted  on  the  scourges  that  depopulate  the  world  ? 

Francois  ue  Curel  :  La  Nouvelle  Idole. 

252.  His  assertion  that  because  it  would  be  no  sin  to 
divert  the  course  of  the  Danube,  therefore  it  is  none  to 
let  out  a  few  ounces  of  blood  from  an  artery,  would  jus- 
tify not  suicide  only,  but  homicide  also.  For  the  lives 
of  ten  thousand  men  are  of  less  consequence  to  their 
country  than  the  course  of  that  river  to  the  regions 
through  which  it  flows.  Population  would  soon  make 
society  amends  for  the  loss  of  her  ten  thousand  mem- 
bers, but  the  loss  of  the  Danube  would  be  felt  by  all  the 
millions  that  dwell  upon  its  banks,  to  all  generations. 
But  the  life  of  a  man  and  the  water  of  a  river  can  never 
come  into  competition  with  each  other,  in  point  of  value, 
unless  in  the  estimation  of  an  unprincipled  philosopher. 

CowPER  :  On  Hii»ic''s  Apology  fo}-  Suicide. 

253.  Suicide  is  indeed  one  of  those  acts  which  may 
be  condemned  by  moralists  as  a  sin,  but  which,  in  mod- 
ern times  at  least,  cannot  be  regarded  as  within  the 
legitimate  sphere  of  law  ;  for  a  society  which  accords  to 
its  members  perfect  liberty  of  emigration,  cannot  reason- 
ably pronounce  the  simple  renunciation  of  life  to  be  an 
offence  against  itself. 

W.  E.  II.  Lecky  :  History  of  European  Morals,  Vol.  II,  p.  51. 


W':\ 


254.  The  vital  force  which  at  present  constitutes  our 
personality,  and  builds  it  up,  is  perpetually  changing. 
Not  for  two  moments  of  time  is  the  arrangement  of  the 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


75 


molecules  of  matter  within  any  living;  organism  the  same  ; 
nor  is  the  coexistence  of  thought  and  feeling  stationary 
for  a  single  instant  within  the  mind  of  any  intlividual. 
Our  present  life  is  a  dynamical  process  of  incessant 
change,  of  progressive  evolution  and  development  ;  but 
throughout  this  whole  process,  our  individuality  survives. 
Individuality  is  not  only  consistent  with  change,  but 
change  is  absolutely  necessary  to  it.  It  is  essential  to 
the  very  life  of  the  individual.  Why,  then,  may  not  the 
individuality  of  the  individual  continue  after  the  larger 
and  more  thoroughgoing  change  of  the  molecules  which 

we  call  death  }  w.  K night  :  ImmortalUy. 


255,  .  .  .  Some  would  scratch  their  heads,  and  try 
What  they  should  write,  and  how,  and  why ; 
But  I  conceive,  such  folks  are  quite  in 
Mistakes,  in  theory  of  writing. 

If  once  for  principle  't  is  laid. 

That  thought  is  trouble  to  the  head  ; 

I  argue  thus  :  the  world  agrees, 

That  he  writes  well,  who  writes  with  ease : 

Then  he,  by  sequel  logical. 

Writes  best,  who  never  thinks  at  all. 

Pryor  :  Epistle  to  Fleetwood  Shepherd. 

256.  Look  here  ;  you  and  I  have  roomed  together  for 
nearly  three  years,  and  have  discussed  many  subjects 
during  that  time.  Now,  I  have  never  once  heard  you 
admit  yourself  beaten  in  argument,  nor  even  suggest  you 
might  be  wrong.     You  must  think  yourself  infallible. 

Remark  of  student  to  his  friend. 


'je 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


%^ 


t 


■'■I 


it.  &-  i  ' 


257.  That  which  tlie  commonalty  accounts  true,  is 
most  part  false  ;  they  arc  still  opposite  to  wise  men  ; 
but  all  the  world  is  of  this  humor  {vn/giis)  ;  and  thou 
thyself  art  de  vulgo,  one  of  the  commonalty ;  and  he, 
and  he ;  and  so  are  all  the  rest ;  and  therefore  to  be 
approved  in  nought  you  say  or  do,  mere  idiots  and  asses. 

Burton  :  The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy. 

258.  Gentlemen,  we  have  heard  from  all  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  different  classes  of  laboring  men,  and  their 
conclusions  all  point  in  one  direction.  Every  represen- 
tative has  in  turn  shown  the  benefits  which  have  accrued 
to  his  trade  or  occupation  by  striking  for  shorter  hours 
and  higher  wages.  Now,  what  is  good  for  one  must  be 
good  for  all  ;  and  I  consequently  call  upon  all  united 
workmen  co  join  in  demanding,  by  the  same  method,  the 
rights  wl  ich  they  are  thus  certain  to  gain. 

Quoted^  verbatitn,  from  a  speech  at  a  labor  itnion. 

259.  ^.'0  hear  the  roaring  of  the  sea  as  one  does,  one 
must  hear  the  parts  which  compose  its  totality,  that  is, 
the  sound  of  each  wave,  .  .  .  although  this  noise  would 
not  be  noticed  if  the  wave  were  alone.  One  must  be 
affected  a  little  by  the  movement  of  one  wave,  one  must 
have  some  perception  of  each  several  noise,  however 
small  it  be.  Otherwise  one  would  not  hear  that  of 
100,000  waves,  for  of  100,000  zeros  one  can  never 
make  a  quantity.  Lkibniz. 

260.  If  the  Liberty  of  a  man  consists  in  the  Empire 
of  his  Reason,  the  absence  whereof  would  betray  him  to 
the  bondage  of  his   Passions  ;    then   the   Liberty  of  a 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


77 


Commonwealth  consists  in  the  Empire  of  her  Laws, 
the  absence  whereof  would  betray  her  to  the  Lust  of 
Tyrants.  And  these  I  conceive  to  be  the  Principles 
upon  which  Aristotle  and  Livv  (injuriously  accused 
by  Leviathan  for  not  writing-  out  of  nature)  have 
grounded  their  assertion,  that  a  Commonwealth  is  an 
Empire  of  Laws,  and  not  of  Men.  But  they  must  not 
carry  it  so.  **  For,"  says  he,  "the  Liberty,  whereof 
there  is  so  frequent  and  honorable  mention  in  the 
History  and  Philosophy  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  the  Writings  and  Discourses  of  those  that 
from  them  have  received  all  their  learning  io  the  Poli- 
tics, is  not  the  Liberty  of  particular  Men,  but  the 
Liberty  of  the  Commonwealth."  He  might  as  well 
have  said,  that  the  Estates  of  particular  Men  in  a  Com- 
monwealth are  not  the  Riches  of  particular  Men,  but 
the  Riches  of  the  Commonwealth  ;  for  equality  of 
Estates  causes  equality  of  Power,  and  equality  of  Power 
is  the  Liberty  not   only  of  the  Commonwealth  but  of 

every  Man.  j^mes  Harringtom-.  Ouamm, 


261.    David  said  in  his  wrath.  All  men  are  li<jjs 

Therefore,  David  was  a  liar. 

Therefore,  What  David  said  was  not  true. 

Therefore,  David  was  not  a  liar. 

But  if  David  was  riot  a  liar,  what  he  said  was  iiiie 
namely,  that  all  men  are  liars. 


262.    The  accusers,  in  answer  to  Pilate,  dedared  as 
follows :    '•  If   he    had    not   been  worthy  of   death,  we 


7« 


ILLUSTRATJONS   OF  LOGIC. 


m 


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ih  1 


I!  il 


n  ^: 


I'i 


would  not  have  brought  him  before  thee."  Discuss 
fully  the  implication  and  assumptions  involved  in  this 
assertion. 

263.  The  public  arc  a  parcel  of  blockheads,  and  all 
blockheads  are  critics,  and  all  critics  are  spiders,  and 
spiders  are  a  set  of  reptiles  that  all  the  world  despises. 

Goldsmith  :  Critical  Review,  March,  1760. 

264.  Ouiqiiid  continetur  in  loco,  corporeum  est. 
At  spiritus  continetur  in  loco. 

Ergo,  spiritus  corporeum  est. 

Si  spiritus  sunt  quanti,  sunt  corporei. 
At  sunt  quanti ;  ergo,  corporei. 

Burton  :   The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  Pt.  I,  Sect,  i,  mem.  i,  subs.  1. 

265.  Interest  created  priests  ;  priests  created  preju- 
dices ;  prejudices  gave  rise  to  wars  :  and  wars  will  last 
so  long  as  there  are  prejudices,  prejudices  so  long  as 
there  are  priests,  and  priests  so  long  as  it  is  anybody's 

interest  to  be  one.  Diderot:   The  Sceptic's  Walk. 

266.  Bodine  goes  further  yet,  and  will  have  the  mii- 
mae  scparatac\  genii,  spirits,  angels,  devils  and  so  like- 
wise souls  of  men  departed,  if  corporeal  (which  he  most 
eagerly  contends),  to  be  of  some  shape,  and  that  abso- 
lutely round,  like  sun  and  moon,  because  that  is  the 
most  perfect  form,  quae  nihil  Jiabet  asperitatis,  nihil 
angulis  incisitm,  niJiil  anfractihns  involutum,  nihil 
eminens,  sed  inter  corpora  est  pcrfectissima  ;  therefore 
all    spirits  (he   concludes)  are    in    their   proper   shapes 

rounci.  Burton  :   The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy, 


JLLCSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


79 


267.  A  person  contended  that  a  dress  folded  up 
tightly  weighed  more  than  a  loosely  folded  one,  and  had 
trunks  made  large  so   as   to   diminish   the   charge   for 

Gore  :   The  Art  of  Scicutljic  Enquiry,  p.  132. 


freight. 


I 


268.  A  very  clever  but  somewhat  paradoxical  journal 
seriously  complained  not  long  ago  that  seven  men  were 
sentenced  to  death  for  one  murder  ;  evidently  thinking 
that  seven  *  lives  '  ought  not  to  be  sacrificed  in  retali- 
ation for  one.       Percy  Greg:  The  Dci'd's  Advocate,  Vol.  I,  p.  156. 

269.  Those  who  set  up  Nature  as  a  standard  of 
action  do  not  intend  a  merely  verbal  proposition  ;  they 
do  not  mean  that  the  standard,  whatever  it  be,  should 
be  called  Nature ;  they  think  they  are  giving  some  in- 
formation as  to  what  the  standard  of  action  really  is. 
They  who  say  that  we  ought  to  act  according  to  Nature 
do  not  mean  the  mere  identical  proposition  that  we 
ought  to  do  what  we  ought  to  do.  They  think  that  the 
word  Nature  affords  some  external  criterion  of  what  we 
should  do  ;  and  if  they  lay  down  as  a  rule  for  what 
ought  to  be,  a  word  which  in  its  proper  signification 
denotes  what  is,  they  do  so  because  they  have  a  notion, 
either  clearly  or  confusedly,  that  what  is,  constitutes 
the  rule  and  standard  of  what  ought  to  be. 

J.  S.  Mill:  Nature. 

270.  "What  is  capable  of  reason,"  says  Zeno,  "is 
better  than  what  is  not  capable  of  it ;  there  is  nothing 
better  than  the  world;  it  is  therefore  capable  of  reason." 
Cotta,  by  this  very  same  mode  of  reasoning,  makes  of 


« 


w 


8o 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


m  - 

rii 


lii 
ill 


the  world  a  mathematician  ;  and  further  of  it  a  musician 
and  organist  according  to  the  following  argument,  also 
drawn  from  Zeno.  '*  The  whole  is  greater  than  the 
part ;  we  are  capable  of  wisdom,  and  we  are  parts  of 
the  world  ;  hence  the  world  is  wise." 

Montaigne:  Essais^  II,  12. 

271.  Zeno,  with  his  dry  syllogistic  method,  argued 
thus :  **  That  which  uses  reason  is  better  than  that 
which  does  not  use  reason  ;  but  nothing  is  better  than 
the  universe ;  therefore  the  universe  uses  reason." 
And  again,  "  Of  nothing  that  is  without  sense  can  any 
part  be  sentient ;  but  parts  of  the  universe  are  sentient ; 
the  universe,  therefore,  is  not  without  sense."  And 
once  more,  '*  Nothing  that  is  destitute  of  mind  and 
reason  can  generate  from  itself  a  living  being  endowed 
with  reason  ;  but  the  universe  generates  living  beings 
endowed  with  reason  ;  therefore  the  universe  is  a  living 
being  and  endowed  with  reason." 

J.  Drummond:  Philo  Judaeus^  p.  78. 

272.  There  is  still  preserved  at  Richmond  the  model 
of  a  bridge,  constructed  by  .  .  .  Mr.  Atwood  ...  in 
the  confidence  that  he  had  explained  the  wonderful 
properties  of  the  arch  as  resulting  from  the  compound 
action  of  simple  wedges,  or  of  the  rectilinear  solids  of 
which  the  material  arch  was  composed ;  and  of  which 
supposed  discovery  his  model  was  to  exhibit  ocular 
proof.  Accordingly,  he  took  a  sufficient  number  of 
v/edges  of  brass  highly  polished.  Arranging  these  at 
first  on  a  skeleton  arch  of  wood,  he  then  removed  this 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


8l 


scaffolding  or  support ;  and  the  bridge  not  only  stood 
firm,  without  any  cement  between  the  squares,  but  he 
could  take  away  any  given  portion  of  them,  as  a  third 
or  a  half,  and  appending  a  corresponding  weight,  at 
either  side,  the  remaining  part  stood  as  before.  Our 
venerable  sovereign  .  .  .  said  :  *'  But,  Mr,  Atwood,  you 
have  presumed  the  figure.  You  have  put  the  arch  first 
in  this  wooden  skeleton.  Can  you  build  a  bridge  of  the 
same  wedges  in  any  other  figure  t  A  straight  bridge, 
or  with  two  lines  touching  at  the  apex }  If  not,  is  it 
not  evident  that  the  bits  of  brass  derive  their  con- 
tinuance in  the  present  position  from  the  property  of 
the  arch,  and  not  the  aich  from  the  property  of  the 
wedge?"  The  objection  was  fatal,  the  justice  of  the 
remark  not  to  be  resisted  ;  and  I  have  ever  deemed  it 
a  forcible  illustration  of  the  Aristotelian  axiom,  with 
respect  to  all  just  reasoning,  that  the  whole  is  of  neces- 
sity prior  to  its  parts.  Coleridge:  The  Friend,  II,  lo. 


273.  Nothing  can  be  mor^'  obvious  than  that  all 
animals  were  creat*  d  solely  and  exclusively  for  the  use 
of  man. 

"Even  the  tiger  that  devours  him.?"  said  Mr.  Escot. 

"  Certainly/'  ^sd  Dr.  Gaster. 

"  How  do  you  prove  it  .-*  "  s;  id  Mr.  Escot, 

"It  requires  no  proof,"  said  Dr.  Gaster:  "it  is  a 
point  of  doctrine.     It  is  written,  therefore  it  is  so." 

"  Nothing  can  be  more  logical,"  said  Mr,  Jenkison, 
"It  has  been  said,"  continued  he,  "that  the  ox  was 
made  expressly  to  |jc  eaten  b^  nmn  ;  it  may  be  said  by 


82 


//,  L  US  TKA  770 NS   OF  L  O  GIC. 


m 


X    -n 


a  parity  of  reasoning,  that  man  was  expressly  made  to 
be  eaten  by  the  tiger  :  but  as  wild  oxen  exist  where 
there  are  no  men,  and  men  where  there  are  no  tigers,  it 
would  seem  that  in  these  instances  they  do  not  properly 
answer  the  ends  of  their  creation." 

Thomas  Love  Peacock  :  Headlong  Hall,  ch.  2. 

274.  What  principle  is  assumed  in  the  following 
quotations,  and  in  h()w  far  is  it  logically  applied  ? 

Water  was  made  to  bear  the  great  structures  which 
we  call  ships.  fenelon. 

Dogs  are  commonly  of  two  different  colors  —  one 
light,  and  the  other  brownish  —  in  order  that  wherever 
they  may  be  in  a  house,  they  may  be  easily  distinguished 
when  on  articles  of  furniture,  with  the  color  of  which 
they  would  otherwise  be  confounded. 

Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre. 

Fleas,  wherever  they  happen  to  be,  jump  on  light- 
colored  objects.  7'his  instinct  was  given  to  them  in 
order  that  we  might  catch  them  more  easily. 

Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre. 

The  melon  is  naturally  divided  into  slices,  and  thus 
is  intended  as  a  family  fruit ;  while  the  pumpkin,  on 
account  of  its  larger  size,  may  be  shared  with  neighbors. 

Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre. 

275.  I  will  conclude,  therefore,  that  if  a  judge  should 
have  a  prejudice  in  respect  of  persons,  it  should  become 
you  rather  to  have  ^  faith  itnp licit  in  my  judgment,  as 
well  as  in  respect  of  some  skill  1  have  in  divinity,  as  also 


■f      '  ■>■ 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC 


<^3 


that  I  hope  no  honest  man  doubts  of  the  uprightness  of 
my  conscience.  And  the  best  thankfuhiess  that  you 
that  are  so  far  ^^  my  creature^''  can  use  towards  me  is  to 
reverence  and  follow  my  judgment  and  not  to  contradict 
it,  except  where  you  may  demonstrat*.  unto  mc  that  1 
am  mistaken  or  wrong  informed. 

James  I  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

276.  How  (it  has  been  asked)  docs  a  chikl  come  to 
form  the  very  abstract  and  metaphysical  idea  expressed 
by  the  pronoun  /  or  moi  ?  In  answer  to  this  question,  I 
have  only  to  observe  that  when  we  set  about  the  expla- 
nation of  a  phenomenon,  we  must  proceed  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  it  is  possible  to  resolve  it  into  some  more 
general  law  or  laws  with  which  we  are  already  acquainted. 
But  in  the  case  before  us,  how  can  this  be  expected,  by 
those  who  consider  that  all  our  knowledge  of  mind  is 
derived  from  the  exercise  of  reflection  ;  and  that  every 
act  of  this  power  implies  a  conviction  of  our  own  exist- 
ence as  reflecting  and  intelligent  beings }  Every  theory, 
therefore,  which  pretends  to  account  for  this  conviction, 
must  necessarily  involve  tliat  sort  of  paralogism  which 
logicians  call  a  pctitio  principii ;  inasmuch  as  it  must 
resolve  the  thing  to  be  explained  into  some  law  or  laws, 
the  evidence  of  which  rests  ultimately  on  the  assump- 
tion in  question.  Dugald  Stewart. 


(Hi 


'  r 


277.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  result  of  a  particular 
psychological  investigation  is  that  a  certain  judgment, 
e.^-.,  '  Everything  has  a  cause'  is  ^  a  priori'  The  psy- 
chologist who  makes  this  discovery  is  apt  to  trespass  on 


84 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LOGIC. 


It  ! 


pi 


llic  domain  of  philosophy,  and  add,  *it  is  therefore  true' 
.Now  if  *  I'A'ery thing  has  a  cause'  is  to  be  accepted  as 
true,  because  it  is  '  a  priori,'  then  for  that  very  reason 
it  is  not  ultimate ;  two  propositions  at  least  must  be 
accepted  before  it;  ist,  all  *a  priori'  judgments  are 
true,  and  2d,  this  is  an  'a  priori '  judgment.  ViO\\\  of 
which  are  assertions  both  disputable  and  disputed. 

A.  J.  Balfour  :  A  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt,  p.  6. 

278.  It  gives  me  some  concern  ...  to  reflect  that  a 
convert  made  in  Bedlam  is  more  likely  to  be  a  stumbling- 
block  to  others  than  to  advance  their  faith.  But  if  it 
has  that  effect  upon  any,  it  is  owing  to  their  reas  »ning 
amiss,  and  drawing  their  conclusions  from  false  prem- 
ises. He  who  can  ascribe  an  amendment  of  life  and 
manners  and  a  reformation  of  the  heart  itself  to  mad- 
ness, is  guilty  of  an  absurdity  that  in  any  other  case 
would  fasten  the  imputation  of  madness  upon  himself ; 
for  by  so  doing  he  ascribes  a  reasonable  effect  to  an 
unreasonable  cause,  and  a  positive  effect  to  a  negative. 

CowPER  :  Letter  to  Lady  Hcsketh,  4th  July,  1765. 

279.  If  the  President  can  at  his  pleasure,  in  the  first 
instance,  send  troops  into  any  city,  town,  or  hamlet  in 
the  country,  under  pretence  of  enforcing  some  law,  his 
judgment  —  which  means  his  pleasure  —  being  the  sole 
criterion,  then  there  can  be  no  difference  between  the 
powers  of  the  President  and  those  of  Emperor  William 
or  the  Czar  of  Russia.  Neither  of  these  potentates 
ever  claimed  anything  more. 

Governor  Altgeld  to  the  Legisiature  of  Illinois,  Jan.  1895,     Quoted 
in  the  Montreal  Gazette^  nth  January,  1895. 


ILIMSTKATJONS  OF  LOGIC. 


85 


280.  To  say  that  matter  is  divisible,  because  extended, 
amounts  to  no  more  than  saying  it  is  so  because  it  con- 
sists of  parts  distinct  and  removable  from  one  another  ; 
a  pretty  way  of  proving  the  point,  being  no  better  than 
the  ladies'  reason,  it  is  divisible  because  it  is. 

Abraham  Tucker  ;   The  Lisht  of  Nature,  Vol.  1,  p.  287. 

281.  Mihi  a  docto  doctore 
Domandatur  causam  et  rationem  quaere 

Ol)ium  facit  dorm  ire. 
A  quoi  resi:)()nde(). 
Quia  est  in  eo 
Verti's  dorm  it  i\  a 
Cujus  est  natura 
Sens  us  assoupire. 

MoLiKRK  :  Le  Malade  Imaginaire,  Iir'"-'  IntermMe. 


282.  Why  is  the  biniodide  of  mercury  red  }  Because 
there  are  contained  in  its  substance  tiny  particles  which 
rV-^mical  analysis  cannot  bring  to  light  and  which  have 
the  power  of  making  it  red.  Without  these  i'lfinitesi- 
mally  small  particles  the  biniodide  of  mercury  w-  ild  not 
be  red.  Why  is  this  drop  of  oil,  suspended  in  a  saline 
solution  of  equal  density,  spherical  in  shape .''  Re  uise 
its  substance  contains  tiny  particles  which  chemical 
analysis  fails  to  reveal  and  which  have  the  power  (.1 
giving  the  drop  a  spherical  shape.  Deprived  of  these 
infinitesimaily  small  particles,  the  drop  of  oil  would  be 
amorphous,  like  Weismann's  protoplasm, — not  spherical. 

F.  Le  Dantec  :  Revue  Philosophique,  May,  1899. 


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86 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


283.  Therefore  when  you  assert  that  a  law  of  progress 
governs  the  world,  that  life  is  tending  from  the  Imper- 
fect to  the  Perfect,  and  that  this  tendency  results  nee  =;- 
sarily  from  natural  selection  alone,  it  seems  to  us  —  the 
profane  —  that  you  contradict  yourselves,  for  you  see 
the  Universe  developing  according  to  so  purely  intel- 
lectual a  concept  as  that  of  perfection,  while  you  at 
the  same  time  deny  that  intelligence  presides  over  the 

Universe.  Antonio  Fogazzaro  :  "  Per  la  Bellezza  d^un  ideaP 


I' 


284.  The  rule  of  faith  laid  down  by  Vincentius  of 
Lirineum,  in  th";  fifth  century,  Qiwd  ubique,  quod  sem- 
per, quod  ab  omnibiis,  is  inapplicable  as  a  practical  guide ; 
because  none  of  the  distinctive  tenets  of  the  Christian 
sects,  —  none  of  the  doctrines  that  divide  Christianity, 
answer  this  description.  No  article  of  faith  has  been 
held  by  all  Christians,  at  all  times,  and  in  all  places. 
None  combines  the  three  attributes  required  by  him,  of 
universality,  antiquity,  and  agreement.  If,  in  order  to 
make  this  maxim  applicable,  we  arbitrarily  exclude  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  those  who  have  laid  claim  to  the  appella- 
tion of  Christians  ;  if  we  call  certain  sects  heretical  and 
schismatical,  and  thus  eliminate  tViem  from  the  aggre- 
gate body  whose  consent  constitutes  authority,  then  our 
reasoning  proceeds  in  a  circle.  We  begin  by  assuming 
as  solved  the  very  problem  of  which  we  are  seeking  the 
solution.  We  propose  to  test  the  soundness  of  certain 
doctrines  by  the  judgment  of  a  certain  tribunal,  and  we 
make  the  constitution  of  the  tribunal  depend  upon  those 
very  doctrines. 

G.  C.  Lewis,  Influence  of  Authority  in  Matters  of  Opinion,  p.  57. 


■Ill 


" 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


87 


285.  They  suppose  themselves  to  be  in  the  right  (as 
other  disputants  do)  and  their  adversaries  in  the  wrong, 
which  yet  those  cannot  be  if  there  be  no  truth,  since 
error  is  a  departing  from  truth,  and  where  there  is  no 
truth  there  can  be  no  error,  even  as  where  there  is  no 
law  there  can  be  no  sin.  And  a  Libertine  that  denies  all 
moral  distinction  between  good  and  evil  may  as  well  say 

'  that  a  man  sins,  as  a  Sceptic  that  allows  no  truth,  that 
a  man  errs.  One  is  as  inconsistent  as  the  other,  because 
error  does  as  much  suppose  truth,  as  sin  does  the  dis- 
tinction of  good  and  evil.  Such  sceptics,  then,  would 
overthrow  themselves,  allowing  that  truth  and  science 
in  Hypothesi  which  they  deny  in  TJiesi.  They  contra- 
dict the  doctrine  they  maintain,  and  in  pretending  to 
prove  it,  they  really  disprove  it. 

John  Norris:  The  Theory  of  the  Ideal  World,  ■^.di. 

286.  The  professor  did  well  to  lay  stress,  not  on  the 
material  triumphs  of  electricity,  which  are  obvious  to 
the  most  superficial  observer,  but  on  the  improvement 
in  social  conditions  resulting  from  material  advantages. 
It  may  be  doubted  whether  engineering  is  entitled  to 

the  credit  Mr. was  inclined  to  give  it,  of  uplifting 

legislative  aims  and  political  ideals.  We  have  not  noticed 
any  improvement  in  our  legislators  or  aldermen  since  the 
horse-cars  gave  way  to  the  trolley. 

Newspaper  comment  on  an  academic  address. 


11 


J 


287.  Against  what  specific  form  of  fallacy  did  Voltaire 
direct  the  following  verses,  referring  to  the  earthquake 
at  Lisbon  in  1755  .J* 


•MJStHai;; 


sBSBSKarai 


88 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


"  Direz-vous,  en  voyant  cet  amas  de  victimes  ;  — 
Dieu  s'est  venge,  la  mort  est  le  prix  de  leurs  crimes  ? 

•  •••••••* 

Lisbonne  est  abim^e  et  Ton  danse  k  Paris !  " 

288.  As  he  was  setting  out  on  a  distant  and  somewhat 
hazardous  expedition,  his  native  servants  tied  round  the 
neck  of  the  mule  a  small  bag  supposed  to  be  of  prevent- 
ive and  mystic  virtue.  As  the  place  was  crowded  and 
a  whole  townspeople  looking  on,  Mr.  Newman  thought 
that  he  would  take  an  opportunity  of  disproving  the 
superstition.  So  he  made  a  long  speech  of  explanation 
in  his  best  Arabic,  and  cut  off  the  bag,  to  the  horror  of 
all  about  him.  But  as  ill-fortune  would  have  it,  the 
mule  had  not  got  thirty  yards  up  the  street  before  she 
put  her  foot  into  a  hole  and  broke  her  leg ;  upon  which 
all  the  natives  were  confirmed  in  their  former  faith  in 
the  power  of  the  bag,  and  said,  "  You  see  now  what 
happens  to  unbelievers. "^^^^^^^^  />/.,«..  w />.//./..,  p.  ,3a. 


289.  When  a  deadly  and  mysterious  disease  fell  upon 
the  cattle  of  England,  some  divines,  not  content  with 
treating  it  as  a  judgment,  proceeded  to  trace  it  to  certain 
popular  writings  containing  what  were  deemed  heterodox 
opinions  about  the  Pentateuch,  or  about  the  eternity 
of  punishment.  It  may  be  true  that  the  disease  was 
imported  from  a  country  where  such  speculations  are 
unknown  ;  that  the  authors  objected  to  had  no  cattle ; 
that  the  farmers,  who  chiefly  suffered  from  the  disease, 
were  for  the  most  part  absolutely  unconscious  of  the 


/' 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


89 


existence  of  these  books,  and  if  they  knew  them  would 
have  indignantly  repudiated  them ;  that  the  town  popu- 
lations who  chiefly  read  them  were  only  affected  indi- 
rectly by  a  rise  in  the  price  of  food,  which  falls  with 
perfect  impartiality  upon  the  orthodox  and  upon  the 
heterodox ;  that  particular  counties  were  peculiarly  suf- 
ferers, without  being  at  all  conspicuous  for  their  scep- 
ticism ;  that  similar  writings  appeared  in  former  periods, 
without  cattle  being  in  any  respect  the  worse ;  and  that 
at  the  very  period  at  which  the  plague  was  raging,  other 
countries,  in  which  far  more  audacious  speculations  were 
rife,  enjoyed  an  absolute  immunity.  In  the  face  of  all 
these  consequences,  the  theory  has  been  confidently 
urged  and  warmly  applauded. 

Lecky  :  History  of  European  Morals,  \o\.  I,  ch.  3,  p.  357. 

290.  It  is  laid  down,  for  example,  that  universities 
should  "  test  the  man  for  what  he  knows,  not  where  he 
learned  it,"  apparently  under  the  impression  that  the 
object  of  restricting  University  degrees  to  those  trained 
in  particular  institutions  is  to  create  a  "monopoly"  in 
favor  of  the  institutions,  or  the  localities  where  they 
happen  to  exist.  The  same  view  is  almost  grotesquely 
brought  out  in  another  passage  : 

**  The  student  of  St.  Patrick's  College,  Carlow,  passes 
through  Dublin,  where  the  Queen's  University  ignores 
him,  on  his  way  to  the  London  University  which  admits 
him,  —  surely  such  an  absurdity  cannot  be  permitted  to 
continue."  . 

I  do  not  know  whether  the  fact  that  the  student  of 
St.  Patrick's  College,  Carlow,  can  nov7  obtain  his  degree 


t 


/ 


90 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


from  London  University  without  passing  the  site  of  the 
Queen's  University,  will  diminish  in  our  author's  eyes 
the  absurdity  which  he  here  discovers ;  but  to  my  mind 
the  only  absurdity  in  the  case  —  and  it  is  a  very  great 
absurdity  —  is   the   application  of   such  tests   to  such 

subjects.  J.  E.  Cairnes  :  Political  Essays,  p.  285. 

291.  Walking  together  in  one  of  the  principal  streets 
of  Lyons,  we  met  the  Hostt  with  an  accompanying  crowd. 
*'  You  must  pull  off  your  hat,  Walduck."  —  "I  will  die 
first,"  he  exclaimed.  As  ...  I  did  not  wish  to  behold 
an  act  of  martyrdom,  /  pulled  off  his  hat.  Afterwards, 
passing  by  the  cathedral,  I  said  to  him  :  "I  must  leave 
you  here,  for  I  won't  go  in  to  be  insulted."  He  followed 
me  with  his  hat  off.  "  I  thought  you  would  die  first !  " — 
"  O  no  ;  here  I  have  no  business  or  right  to  be.  If  the 
owners  of  this  building  choose  to  make  a  .  .  .  rule  that 
no  one  shall  enter  with  his  hat,  they  do  what  they  have 
a  legal  right  to  do,  and  I  must  submit  to  their  terms. 
Not  so  in  the  broad  highway."  The  reasoning  was  not 
good,  but  one  is  not  critical  when  the  conclusion  is  the 

right  one  practically.       Craub  Robinson  :  Diary,  Vol.  I,  p.  434. 

292.  Take  for  example  Dr.  Livingstone's  argument 
with  the  negro  conjurer.  The  missionary  was  trying  to 
dissuade  the  savage  from  his  fetichistic  ways  of  invoking 
rain.  "You  see,"  said  he,  "that  after  all  your  opera- 
tions, sometimes  it  rains  and  sometimes  it  does  not, 
exactly  as  when  you  have  not  operated  at  all."  "  But," 
replied  the  sorcerer,  "it  is  just  the  same  with  you  doc- 
tors ;  you  give  your  remedies,  and  sometimes  the  patient 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


91 


gets  well  and  sometimes  he  dies,  just  as  when  you  do 
nothing  at  all."  To  that  the  pious  missionary  replied : 
**  The  doctor  does  his  duty,  after  which  God  performs 
the  cure  if  it  pleases  him."  "Well,"  rejoined  the  sav- 
age, "it  is  just  so  with  me.  I  do  what  is  necessary  to 
procure  rain,  after  which  God  sends  it  or  withholds  it 
according  to  his  pleasure."     ^m\^%.  psychoiogy,Vo\.\,^.z(^i. 

293.  Are  you  a  prince  of  the  House  of  Hanover,  and 
you  exclude  all  the  leading  Whig  families  from  your 
councils }  Do  you  profess  to  govern  according  to  Law, 
and  is  it  consistent  with  that  profession,  to  impart  your 
confidence  and  affection  to  those  men  only,  who,  though 
now  perhaps  detached  from  the  desperate  cause  of  the 
Pretender,  are  marked  in  this  country  by  an  hereditary 
attachment  to  high  and  arbitrary  principles  of  govern- 
ment }  Are  you  so  infatuated  as  to  take  the  sense  of 
your  people  from  the  representation  of  ministers,  or 
from  the  shouts  of  a  mob,  notoriously  hired  to  surround 
your  coach,  or  stationed  at  a  theatre }  And  if  you  are, 
in  reality,  that  public  Man,  that  King,  that  Magistrate, 
which  these  questions  suppose  you  to  be,  is  it  any 
answer  to  your  people  to  say  that  among  your  domestics 
you  are  good-humored,  —  that  to  one  lady  you  are  faith- 
ful ;  —  that  to  your  children  you  are  indulgent .? 

IxitiWi?,:  Letter  to  the  King  {f3^ox^\\\). 

294.  This  reminds  us  of  the  "  astounding  discovery  " 
with  which  Dr.  Buckland  is  reported  to  have  lately 
electrified  the  Bristolians.  Ephraim  Jenkinson's  ghost 
must  have  heard  with  jealousy,  on  the  banks  of  the 


92 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


Styx,  the  shouts  of  applause  which  echoed  the  doctor's 
assertion  on  the  banks  of  the  Avon,  that  the  world  had 
already  lasted  "  millions  of  years  "  ;  that  "  a  new  version 
of  Genesis  "  would  be  shortly  required,  since  a  new  light 
"had  been  thrown  on  Hebrew  scholarship!"  The 
doctor's  declaration  is  very  properly  described  as  the 
only  "original  feat"  elicited  at  the  meeting.  What 
fun !  to  hear  a  mite  in  the  cavity  of  a  Gloucester 
cheese  gravely  reasoning  on  the  streaks  (or  strata)  of 
red  and  yellow,  and  finally  concluding,  all  things  duly 
considered,  that  the  invoice  of  the  farmer  who  made  it 
bears  a  wrong  date,  and  that  the  process  of  fabricating 
the  cheese  in  question  must  have  been  begun  as  long 
ago,  at  least,  as  the  days  of  the  Heptarchy ! 

Francis  Mahony:  The  Reliques  of  Father  Prout^^.  \y]. 


), 


295.  See  account  of  the  proceedings  against  Governor 
Eyre  of  Jamaica,  in  connection  with  the  execution  of 
Gordon,  as  related  by  Justin  McCarthy  in  the  History 
of  Our  Own  Times,  ch.  49, 

Chief  Justice  (Sir  Alexander  Cockburn).  —  After  the 
most  careful  perusal  of  the  evidence  which  was  adduced 
against  him  (Gordon),  I  come  irresistibly  to  the  con- 
clusion that  if  the  man  had  been  tried  upon  that  evi- 
dence —  I  must  correct  myself.  He  could  not  have 
been  tried  upon  that  evidence.  I  was  going  too  far,  a 
great  deal  too  far,  in  assuming  that  he  could.  No  com- 
petent judge  acquainted  with  the  duties  of  his  office 
could  have  received  that  evidence.  Three-fourths,  I 
had  almost    said   nine-tenths,   of   that   evidence   upon 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


93 


which  that  man  was  convicted  and  sentenced  to  death 
was  evidence  which  according  to  no  known  rules  —  not 
only  of  ordinary,  but  of  military  law  —  according  to 
no  rules  of  right  or  justice  could  possibly  have  been 
admitted ;  and  it  never  would  have  been  admitted  if  a 
competent  judge  had  presided,  or  if  there  had  been  the 
advantage  of  a  military  officer  of  any  experience  in  the 
practice  of  courts-martial. 

Carlyle. — Lordship,  If  you  were  to  speak  six  hundred 
years  instead  of  six  hours,  you  would  only  prove  the 
more  to  us  that,  unwritten  if  you  will,  but  real  and 
fundamental,  anterior  to  all  written  laws  and  first  mak- 
ing written  laws  possible,  there  must  have  been,  and  is, 
and  will  be,  coeval  with  Human  Society  ...  an  actual 
Martial  Law,  of   more   validity  than   any  other   law 

whatever.  shooting  Niagara :  and  After? 

Justin  McCarthy.  —  The  business  of  the  Lord  Chief 
Justice,  however,  was  not  to  go  in  philosophical  quest 
of  those  higher  laws  of  which  Mr.  Carlyle  assumed  to 
be  the  interpreter.  His  was  the  humbler,  but  more 
practical,  part  to  expound  the  laws  of  England,  and  he 
did  his  duty. 

296.  M.  Hugo  was  at  the  Opera  on  the  night  the 
sentence  of  the  Court  of  Peers,  condemning  Barb^s  to 
death,  was  published.  The  great  poet  composed  the 
following  verses : 

"  Par  votre  ange  envol6e,  ainsi  qu'une  colombe. 
Par  le  royal  enfant,  doux  et  frele  roseau. 


94  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 

GrAce  encore  une  fois  !    Grdce  au  nom,  de  la  tombe ! 
GrAce  au  nom  du  berccau  !  " 


Louis  Philippe  replied  to  the  author  of  '  Ruy  Bias ' 
most  graciously,  that  he  had  already  subscribed  to  a 
wish  so  noble,  and  that  the  verses  had  only  confirmed 
his  previous  disposition  to  mercy.  Now  i^  countries 
where  fools  most  abound,  did  one  ever  read  of  more 
monstrous,  palpable  folly  ?  In  any  country,  save  this, 
would  a  poet  who  chose  to  write  four  crack-brained 
verses,  comparing  an  angel  to  a  dove,  and  a  little  boy 
to  a  reed,  and  calling  upon  the  chief  magistrate,  in  the 
name  of  the  angel,  or  dove  (the  Princess  Mary),  in  her 
tomb,  and  the  little  infant  in  his  cradle,  have  received  a 
"  gracious  answer  "  to  his  nonsense  ?  .  .  .  Suppose  the 
Count  of  Paris  to  be  twenty  times  a  reed,  and  the 
Princess  Mary  a  host  of  angels,  is  that  any  reason  why 
the  law  should  not  have  its  course  ? 

Thackeray  :  The  Paris  Sketch  Book. 

2^*j,  *'  For  what  are  tythes  and  tricks  but  an  impo- 
sition, all  a  confounded  imposture,  and  I  can  prove  it. 
*I  wish  you  would,'  cried  my  son  Moses,  'and  I  think,' 
continued  he,  *that  I  should  be  able  to  answer  you.' 
*  Very  well,  sir,'  cried  the  Squire ;  ...  *  if  you  are 
for  a  cool  argument  upon  that  subject,  I  am  ready  to 
accept  the  challenge.  And,  first,  whether  are  you  for 
managing  it  analogically  or  dialogically  ?'  *  I  am  for 
managing  it  rationally,'  cried  Moses,  quite  happy  at  being 
permitted  to  dispute.     '  Good  again,'  cried  the  Squire, 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


9S 


*and  firstly,  of  the  first,  I  hope  you  '11  not  deny,  that 
whatever  is,  is.  If  you  don't  grant  me  that,  I  can  go 
no  further.'  'Why,'  returned  Moses,  'I  think  1  may 
grant  that,  and  make  the  best  of  it.'  *I  hope,  too,' 
returned  the  other,  *  you  '11  grant  that  a  part  is  less  than 
the  whole.'  'I  grant  that  too,'  cried  Moses,  'it  is  but 
just  and  reasonable.'  'I  hope,'  cried  the  Squire,  'you 
will  not  deny  that  the  two  angles  of  a  triangle  are  equal 
to  two  right  ones.'  '  Nothing  can  be  plainer,'  returned 
t  'other,  and  looked  round  with  his  usual  importance. 
'Very  well,'  cried  the  Squire,  speaking  very  quick,  'the 
premises  being  thus  settled,  I  proceed  to  observe,  that 
the  concatenation  of  self-existences  proceeding  in  a 
reciprocal  duplicate  ratio,  naturally  produce  a  problem- 
atical dialogism,  which  in  some  measure  proves  that 
the  essence  of  spirituality  may  be  referred  to  the  second 
predicable.'  '  Hold,  hold,'  cried  the  other,  '  I  deny  that. 
Do  you  think  I  can  thus  tamely  submit  to  such  hetero- 
dox doctrines  } '  '  What  t '  replied  the  Squire,  as  if  in  a 
passion,  '  not  submit  t  Answer  me  one  plain  question  : 
do  you  think  Aristotle  right,  when  he  says,  that  rela- 
tives are  related  1 '  '  Undoubtedly,'  replied  the  other. 
'If  so,  then,'  cried  the  Squire,  'answer  me  directly  to 
what  I  propose :  Whether  do  you  judge  the  analytical 
investigation  of  the  first  part  of  my  enthymeme  deficient, 
secundum  quoad,  or  quoad  minus  "i  and  give  me  your 
reasons ;  give  me  your  reasons,  I  say,  directly.'  '  I 
protest,'  cried  Moses,  '  I  don't  rightly  comprehend  the 
force  of  your  reasoning ;  but  if  it  be  reduced  to  one 
simple  proposition,  I  fancy  it  may  then  have  an  answer.* 


96 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


% 


' 


' 


*  O  Sir,*  cried  the  Squire,  *  I  am  your  most  humble 
servant :  1  find  you  want  me  to  furnish  you  with  argu- 
ments and  intellect  too.    No,  Sir,  there  I  protest  you  are 

too  hard  for  me.'  "       goldsmith  :   TAe  Vuar  of  Walr/ieM,  ch.  7. 

298.  A  short  while  since  a  certain  Reviewer  an- 
nounced that  I  gave  myself  great  pretensions  as  a 
philosopher.  I  a  philosopher ;  I  advance  pretensions  ! 
My  dear  Saturday  friend,  and  you  ?  Don't  you  teach 
everything  to  everybody  .'  and  punish  the  naughty  boys 
if  they  don't  learn  as  y^u  bid  them  ?  You  teach  politics 
to  Lord  John  and  Mr.  GUdstone.  You  teach  poets 
how  to  write ;  painters,  how  to  paint ;  gentlemen,  man- 
ners ;  and  opera-dancers,  how  to  pirouette.  I  was  not 
a  little  amused  of  late  by  an  instance  of  the  modesty 
of  our  Saturday  friend,  who  more  Athenian  than  the 
Athenians,  and  apropos  of  a  Greek  book  by  a  Greek 
author,  sat  down  and  gravely  showed  the  Greek  gentle- 
man how  to  write  his  own  language. 

Thack^kkw  Roundabout  Papers.    '■'■  Small-beer  Chronicle^'' 

299.  The  advocates  of  this  bill  proposed  to  abolish 
bull-baiting  on  the  score  of  cruelty.  It  is  strange 
enough  that  such  an  argument  should  be  employed  by 
a  set  of  persons  who  1  ive  a  most  vexatious  code  of  laws 
for  the  protection  of  their  own  amusements.  I  do  not 
mean  at  present  to  condemn  the  game  laws  ;  but  when 
gentlemen  talk  of  cruelty,  I  must  remind  them  that  it 
belongs  as  much  to  shooting,  as  to  the  sport  of  bull- 
baiting  ;  nay  more  so,  as  it  frequently  happens  that 
where  one  bird  is  shot,  a  great   many  others  go  off 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LOGIC. 


97 


much  wounded.  When  therefore  I  hear  humane  gentle- 
men even  make  a  boast  of  having  wounded  a  number  of 
birds  in  this  way,  it  only  affords  me  a  fuither  proof 
that  savage  sports  do  not  make  savage  people. 

Wyndham:  On  the  proposal  to  abolish  buU-hixitlng^  1800. 

300.  What  is  the  world  to  think  of  that  right  honor- 
able gentleman's  (Pitt)  discretion  and  judgment  from 
this  night,  who,  upon  the  subject  of  the  Irish  propo- 
sitions, ventures  neither  more  nor  less  than  to  charge 
us  with  shifting  our  ground  and  playing  a  double  game  ? 
.  .  .  For  him  to  talk  of  our  shifting  our  ground  !  He ! 
who  has  shifted  his  ground  until,  in  truth,  he  has  no 
ground  to  stand  upon  !  He  !  who  has  assumed  so  many 
shapes,  colours,  and  characters,  in  the  progress  of  this 
extraordinary  undertaking  !  He  !  who  has  proclaimed 
determinations  only  to  recede  from  them  ;  who  has 
asserted  principles  only  to  renounce  them  !  .  .  .  Com- 
pare the  twenty  propositions  now  upon  your  table  with 
the  eleven  original  ones,  as  the  right  honorable  gentle- 
man introduced  them  to  this  house;  compare  his  lan- 
guage on  that  day  with  the  language  of  this  night ; 
compare  the  nature  of  the  two  strings  of  propositions, 
substantially  and  fundamentally  subverted  in  many  parts, 
in  all  materially  altered,  with  those  reiterated  declarations 
that  not  one  principle  could  on  any  terms  be  meddled  with. 
Let  the  House  reflect  upon  these  circumstances,  and  let 
them  judge,  whether  a  grosser  piece  of  insanity  was  ever 
heard  of,  than  that  the  author  of  all  this  miserable  foolery 
should  charge  others  with  shifting  their  ground ! 

Charles  James  Fox:  On  the  Irish  Commercial  Propositions  ^\^%%, 


U 


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A  Method  of  English  Composition.  By  T.  Whiting  Bancroft,  late 
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Cloth.     loi  pages.     For  introduction,  50  cents. 

The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric.  By  John  F.  Genung,  Professor 
of  Rhetoric  in  Amherst  College.  Cloth.  483  pages.  For  intro- 
duction, $1.25. 

A  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis.  Studies  in  style  and  invention, 
designed  to  accompany  the  author's  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 
By  John  F.  Genung.  Cloth.  306  pages.  Introduction  and  teachers' 
price,  $1.12. 

Outlines  of  Rhetoric.  Embodied  in  rules,  illustrative  examples,  and  a 
progressive  course  of  prose  composition.  By  John  F.  Genung. 
Cloth.     331  pages.     For  introduction,  $1.00. 

The  Principles  of  Argumentation.  By  George  P.  Baker,  Assistant 
Professor  of  English  in  Harvard  University.  Cloth.  414  pages.  For 
introduction,  $1.12. 

The  Forms  of  Discourse.  With  an  introductory  chapter  on  style.  By 
William  B.  Cairns,  Instructor  in  Rhetoric  in  the  University  of 
Wisconsin.     Cloth.     356  pages.     For  introduction,  1^1.15. 

Outlines  of  the  Art  of  Expression.  By  J.  H.  Gilmore,  Professor  of 
logic.  Rhetoric,  and  English  in  the  University  of  Rochester,  N.Y. 
Cloth.     117  pages.     For  introduction,  60  cents. 

The  Rhetoric  Tablet.  By  F.  N.  Scott,  Assistant  Professor  of  Rhetoric, 
University  of  Michigan,  and  J.  V.  Denney,  Associate  Professor  of 
Rhetoric,  Ohio  State  University.  No.  i,  white  paper  (ruled).  No.  2, 
tinted  paper  (ruled).  Sixty  sheets  in  each.  For  introduction,  15  cents. 

Public  Speaking  and  Debate.  A  manual  for  advocates  and  agitators. 
By  George  Jacob  Holyoake.  Cloth.  266  pages.  For  intro- 
duction, $1.00. 


QiNN  &  Company,   Publishers, 


Boston.    New  York.    Chicago.    Atlanta.    Dallas. 


TEXT-BOOKS  ON    RHETORIC 

FOB  HZOHSB  BOHOOLS  AND  OOLLEOEB. 

By  JOHN   F.  GENUNG, 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  A  mherst  College, 

The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric.  i2mo.  Cloth.  483  pages. 
For  introduction,  $1.25. 

Outlines  of  Rhetoric.  Embodied  in  rules,  illustrative  examples,  and 
a  progressive  course  of  prose  composition.  i2mo.  Cloth. 
331  pages.     For  introduction,  $100. 

A  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis.  Studies  in  style  and  inven- 
tion, designed  to  accompany  the  author's  "  Practical  Elements  of 
Rhetoric."  i2mo.  Cloth.  306  pages.  Introduction  and  teachers' 
price,  $1.12. 

Professor  Genung's  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  though 
a  work  on  a  trite  subject,  has  aroused  general  enthusiasm  by 
its  freshness  and  practical  worth. 

The  treatment  is  characterized  by  good  sense,  simplicity, 
originality,  availability,  completeness,  and  ample  illustration. 

It  is  throughout  constructive  ?nd  the  student  is  regarded 
at  every  step  as  endeavoring  to  make  literature.  All  of  the 
literary  forms  have  been  given  something  of  the  fullness 
hitherto  accorded  only  to  argument  and  oratory. 

The  Outlines  of  Rhetoric  is  in  no  sense  a  condensation  or 
adaptation  of  the  author's  "  Elements,"  but  an  entirely  new 
book  prepared  for  a  different  field. 

Great  care  has  been  taken  in  this  work  to  state  the  prin- 
ciples in  such  plain  and  simple  language  that  the  pupil  will 
not  fail  to  understand ;  and  such  is  its  clearness  that  even 
beginners  will  find  many  of  the  deeper  principles  of  expres- 
sion, as  well  as  the  simpler,  both  lucid  and  interesting. 

The  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis  follows  the  general  plan 
of  the  "Elements,"  being  designed  to  alternate  with  that 
from  time  to  time,  as  different  stages  of  the  subject  are 
reached. 


GINN   &  COMPANY,  Publishers, 

Boston.         New  York.         Chicago.         Atlanta.         Dallas. 


THE   HARVARD   EDITION  OF 

SHAKESPEARE'S   COMPLETE  WORKS 


By  henry  N.  HUDSON,  LL.D., 

Author  of  the  "Life,  Art,  and  Characters  of  Shakespeare^^ 
Editor  of  ^^ School  Shakespeare^^  etc. 

In  twenty  volumes,  duodecimo,  two  plays  in  each  volume ;  also  in  ten  volumes, 

of  four  plays  each. 


RETAIL   PRICES: 
«,-vol.  edition  {S'^ofJ^^^jV.    :^S.S   I     "-°»-'»>««'Mhalf^aif  : 


$20.00 
40.00 


The  Harvard  Edition  has  been  undertaken  and  the  plan  of  it 
shaped  with  a  special  view  to  making  the  Poet's  pages  pleasant  and 
attractive  to  general  readers.  A  history  of  each  play  is  given  in  its 
appropriate  volume.  The  plays  are  arranged  in  three  distinct  series  : 
Comedies,  Histories,  and  Tragedies  ;  and  the  plays  of  each  series  pre- 
sented, as  nearly  as  may  be,  in  the  chronological  order  of  the  writing. 

A  special  merit  of  this  edition  is,  that  each  volume  has  two  sets  of 
notes,  —  one  mainly  devoted  to  explaining  the  text,  and  placed  at  the 
foot  of  the  page,  the  other  mostly  occupied  with  matters  of  textual 
comment  and  criticism,  and  printed  at  the  end  of  each  play.  The 
edition  is  thus  admirably  suited  to  the  uses  both  of  the  general  reader 
and  of  the  special  student. 

Horace  Howard  Furness:  A  noble  edition,  with  happy  mingle  of  illustration, 
ex,  '  "nation,  and  keen,  subtle,  sympathetic  criticism. 

Professor  Dowden  :  Hudson's  edition  takes  its  place  beside  the  best  work  of 
English  Shakespeare  students. 

Professor  C.  T.  Winchester:  It  seems  to  me,  without  question,  the  best  edition 
now  printed. 

■  >■     — ■ 

Life,  Art,  and  Characters  of  Shakespeare 

By  HENRY  N.  HUDSON. 

In  two  volumes, 
zsmo.    Z003  pages.    Retail  prices :  cloth,  $4.00 ;  half  calf ,  $8.00. 

Edwin  Booth,  the  great  actor  and  eminent  Shakespearean  scholar, 
once  said  that  he  received  more  real  good  from  the  original  criticisms 
and  suggestive  comments  as  given  by  Dr.  Hudson  in  these  two  books 
than  from  any  other  writer  on  Shakespeare. 


GINN  &  COMPANY,  Publishers, 

BMton.  New  York.         Chicago.  Atlanta.  Dallas. 


iMW«jniyjHmfiH»— Hi  I.  iiiiiin  I 


GAYLEY'S   CLASSIC  MYTHS 


THB  0LA8SZ0  MYTHS  IN  ENOUSH  UTBBATUBE. 


I 


Bued  chiefly  on  BnUach't  "  Age  of  Fable  "  (18S5).    Accompanied  by  an 
Interpretative  and  Ulnetratlve  Commentary. 

EDITED   BY 

CHARLES   MILLS   GAYLEY,     ' 

Professor  of  the  English  Language  atid  Literature  in  the 
University  of  California. 


I 


ismo.  Half  leather.  540  pages.  Fully  illustrated,  together  with  16  full- 
page  illustrations.    For  introduction,  $1.50. 


Attention  is  called  to  these  special  features  of  this  book : 

An  introduction  on  the  indebtedness  of  English  poetry 
to  the  liteiature  of  fable;  and  on  methods  of  teaching 
mythology. 

An  elementary  account  of  myth-making  and  of  the  prin- 
cipal poets  of  mythology,  and  of  the  beginnings  of  the  world, 
of  gods  and  of  men  among  the  Greeks. 

A  thorough  revision  and  systematization  of  Bulfinch's 
Stories  of  Gods  and  Heroes  :  with  additional  stories,  and 
with  selections  from  English  poems  based  upon  the  myths. 

Illustrative  cuts  from  Baumeister,  Roscher,  and  other 
standard  authorities  on  mythology. 

Certain  necessary  modifications  in  Bulfinch's  treatment  of 
the  mythology  of  nations  other  than  the  Greek  and  Roman. 

Notes,  following  the  text  (as  in  the  school  editions  of 
Latin  and  Greek  authors),  containing  an  historical  and 
interpretative  commentary  upon  certain  myths,  supplemen- 
tary poetical  citations,  a  list  of  the  better  known  allusions 
to  mythological  fiction,  references  to  works  of  art,  and  hints 
to  teachers  and  students. 


GINN  &  COMPANY,  Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.         Chicago.         Atlanta.         Dallas. 


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